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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Soil</h1>
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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Soil_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Soil (disambiguation)">Soil (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
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<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life</div>
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<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></td>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/soil" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:soil"> soil</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</td></tr>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Estructura-suelo.jpg" class="image"><img alt="This is a diagram and related photograph of soil layers from bedrock to soil." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Estructura-suelo.jpg/220px-Estructura-suelo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Estructura-suelo.jpg/330px-Estructura-suelo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Estructura-suelo.jpg/440px-Estructura-suelo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="541" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Estructura-suelo.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A, B, and C represent the <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">soil profile</a>, a notation firstly coined by <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Dokuchaev" title="Vasily Dokuchaev">Vasily Dokuchaev</a> (1846–1903), the father of <a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">pedology</a>; A is the <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a>; B is a <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a>; C is a <a href="/wiki/Saprolite" title="Saprolite">saprolite</a> (a less-weathered regolith); the bottom-most layer represents the <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a>.</div></div></div>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stagnogley.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stagnogley.JPG/220px-Stagnogley.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stagnogley.JPG/330px-Stagnogley.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stagnogley.JPG/440px-Stagnogley.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1511" data-file-height="1179" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Stagnogley.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Surface-water-<a href="/wiki/Gley_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Gley soil">gley</a> developed in <a href="/wiki/Glacial_till" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial till">glacial till</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>.</div></div></div>
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<p><b>Soil</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> that together support <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>. <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s body of soil, called the <a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">pedosphere</a>, has four important <a href="/wiki/Soil_functions" title="Soil functions">functions</a>:
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</p>
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<ul><li>as a medium for plant growth</li>
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<li>as a means of <a href="/wiki/Water_storage" title="Water storage">water storage</a>, supply and purification</li>
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<li>as a modifier of <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Earth's atmosphere</a></li>
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<li>as a habitat for organisms</li></ul>
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<p>All of these functions, in their turn, modify the soil.
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</p><p>The pedosphere interfaces with the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ches_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ches-1">[1]</a></sup> The term <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pedolith" class="extiw" title="wikt:pedolith">pedolith</a></i>, used commonly to refer to the soil, translates to <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ground" class="extiw" title="wikt:ground">ground</a> stone</i> in the sense "fundamental stone".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and organic matter (the soil matrix), as well as a <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porous</a> phase that holds gases (the soil atmosphere) and water (the soil solution).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Accordingly, soil scientists can envisage soils as a three-<a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">state</a> system of solids, liquids, and gases.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Soil is a product of several factors: the influence of <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">relief</a> (elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain), organisms, and the soil's <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent materials</a> (original minerals) interacting over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilluly1975_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilluly1975-7">[7]</a></sup> It continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> with associated <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>. Given its complexity and strong internal <a href="/wiki/Connectedness" title="Connectedness">connectedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_ecology" title="Soil ecology">soil ecologists</a> regard soil as an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Most soils have a dry <a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">bulk density</a> (density of soil taking into account voids when dry) between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, while the soil <a href="/wiki/Particle_density_(packed_density)" title="Particle density (packed density)">particle density</a> is much higher, in the range of 2.6 to 2.7 g/cm<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-Yu2015_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu2015-9">[9]</a></sup> Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> and none is older than the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Buol_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buol-10">[10]</a></sup> although <a href="/wiki/Paleopedological_record" title="Paleopedological record">fossilized soils</a> are preserved from as far back as the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> has two basic branches of study: <a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">edaphology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">pedology</a>. Edaphology studies the influence of soils on living things.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> Pedology focuses on the formation, description (morphology), and classification of soils in their natural environment.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> In engineering terms, soil is included in the broader concept of <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a>, which also includes other loose material that lies above the bedrock, as can be found on the Moon and on other celestial objects as well.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> Soil is also commonly referred to as <b>earth</b> or <b><a href="/wiki/Dirt" title="Dirt">dirt</a></b>; some scientific definitions distinguish <i>dirt</i> from <i>soil</i> by restricting the former term specifically to displaced soil.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Functions"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Functions</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Description"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Description</span></a></li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#History_of_studies"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History of studies</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Fertility"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Fertility</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Formation"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Formation</span></a></li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Formation_2"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Formation</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Factors"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Factors</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Parent_material"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Parent material</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-10"><a href="#Weathering"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Weathering</span></a></li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Climate"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Climate</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Topography"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Topography</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Organisms"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Organisms</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Time"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Time</span></a></li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Physical_properties"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Physical properties</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Texture"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Texture</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Structure"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Structure</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Density"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Density</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Porosity"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Porosity</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Consistency"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Consistency</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Temperature"><span class="tocnumber">4.6</span> <span class="toctext">Temperature</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Color"><span class="tocnumber">4.7</span> <span class="toctext">Color</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Resistivity"><span class="tocnumber">4.8</span> <span class="toctext">Resistivity</span></a></li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Water"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Water</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Water_retention"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Water retention</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Water_flow"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Water flow</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Water_uptake_by_plants"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Water uptake by plants</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Consumptive_use_and_water_use_efficiency"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Consumptive use and water use efficiency</span></a></li>
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</ul>
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</li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Atmosphere"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Atmosphere</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Composition_of_the_solid_phase_(soil_matrix)"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Composition of the solid phase (soil matrix)</span></a>
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<ul>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Gravel,_sand_and_silt"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Gravel, sand and silt</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Mineral_colloids;_soil_clays"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Mineral colloids; soil clays</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Alumino-silica_clays"><span class="tocnumber">7.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Alumino-silica clays</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#Crystalline_chain_clays"><span class="tocnumber">7.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Crystalline chain clays</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><a href="#Amorphous_clays"><span class="tocnumber">7.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Amorphous clays</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-36"><a href="#Sesquioxide_clays"><span class="tocnumber">7.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Sesquioxide clays</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Organic_colloids"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Organic colloids</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Carbon_and_terra_preta"><span class="tocnumber">7.4</span> <span class="toctext">Carbon and terra preta</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#Chemistry"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Chemistry</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Cation_and_anion_exchange"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cation and anion exchange</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41"><a href="#Cation_exchange_capacity_(CEC)"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cation exchange capacity (CEC)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-42"><a href="#Anion_exchange_capacity_(AEC)"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Anion exchange capacity (AEC)</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#Reactivity_(pH)"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Reactivity (pH)</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-44"><a href="#Base_saturation_percentage"><span class="tocnumber">8.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Base saturation percentage</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-45"><a href="#Buffering"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Buffering</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-46"><a href="#Nutrients"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Nutrients</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Uptake_processes"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Uptake processes</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><a href="#Carbon"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Carbon</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#Nitrogen"><span class="tocnumber">9.3</span> <span class="toctext">Nitrogen</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-50"><a href="#Gains"><span class="tocnumber">9.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Gains</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-51"><a href="#Sequestration"><span class="tocnumber">9.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sequestration</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-52"><a href="#Losses"><span class="tocnumber">9.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Losses</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><a href="#Phosphorus"><span class="tocnumber">9.4</span> <span class="toctext">Phosphorus</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-54"><a href="#Potassium"><span class="tocnumber">9.5</span> <span class="toctext">Potassium</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-55"><a href="#Calcium"><span class="tocnumber">9.6</span> <span class="toctext">Calcium</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><a href="#Magnesium"><span class="tocnumber">9.7</span> <span class="toctext">Magnesium</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-57"><a href="#Sulfur"><span class="tocnumber">9.8</span> <span class="toctext">Sulfur</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-58"><a href="#Micronutrients"><span class="tocnumber">9.9</span> <span class="toctext">Micronutrients</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-59"><a href="#Non-essential_nutrients"><span class="tocnumber">9.10</span> <span class="toctext">Non-essential nutrients</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-60"><a href="#Soil_organic_matter"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Soil organic matter</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-61"><a href="#Humus"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Humus</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-62"><a href="#Climatological_influence"><span class="tocnumber">10.2</span> <span class="toctext">Climatological influence</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-63"><a href="#Plant_residue"><span class="tocnumber">10.3</span> <span class="toctext">Plant residue</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-64"><a href="#Horizons"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Horizons</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-65"><a href="#Classification"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Classification</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-66"><a href="#Systems"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Systems</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-67"><a href="#Australia"><span class="tocnumber">12.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Australia</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-68"><a href="#European_Union"><span class="tocnumber">12.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">European Union</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-69"><a href="#United_States"><span class="tocnumber">12.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">United States</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-70"><a href="#Uses"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Uses</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-71"><a href="#Degradation"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Degradation</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-72"><a href="#Reclamation"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">Reclamation</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-73"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-74"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-75"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">18</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-76"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">19</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Overview">Overview</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_profile.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_profile.png/220px-Soil_profile.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_profile.png/330px-Soil_profile.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_profile.png/440px-Soil_profile.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1833" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_profile.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Soil profile: Darkened topsoil and reddish subsoil <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizons" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil horizons">layers</a> are typical in <a href="/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate" title="Humid subtropical climate">some regions.</a></div></div></div>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Functions">Functions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Functions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>Soil is a major component of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, from <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming">global warming</a> to <a href="/wiki/Rainforest_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainforest destruction">rainforest destruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>. With respect to Earth's <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>, soil is an important <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon reservoir</a>, and it is potentially one of the most reactive to human disturbance<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> and climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson-17">[17]</a></sup> As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased <a href="/wiki/Soil_biology" title="Soil biology">biological</a> activity at higher temperatures, a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> (amplification).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> This prediction has, however, been questioned on consideration of more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for <a href="/wiki/Soil_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil organisms">soil organisms</a>, a recycling system for <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic waste">organic wastes</a>, a regulator of <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a>, a modifier of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">atmospheric composition</a>, and a medium for <a href="/wiki/Plant_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant growth">plant growth</a>, making it a critically important provider of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains most of the Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> Soil has a <a href="/wiki/Mean" title="Mean">mean</a> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> density of roughly 10<sup>8</sup> organisms per gram,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> whereas the ocean has no more than 10<sup>7</sup> prokaryotic organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">Organic carbon</a> held in soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">respiration</a> carried out by <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophic">heterotrophic</a> organisms, but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> usually increases the rate of soil respiration, leading to the depletion of soil organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil" title="Pore space in soil">soil pores</a>, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for uptake by plants. Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but most regions receive sporadic rainfall, the <a href="/wiki/Soil_water_(retention)" title="Soil water (retention)">water-holding capacity</a> of soils is vital for plant survival.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soils can effectively remove impurities,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup> kill disease agents,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> and degrade contaminants, this latter property being called natural attenuation.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Typically, soils maintain a net absorption of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> and undergo a net release of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> Soils offer plants physical support, air, water, temperature moderation, nutrients, and protection from toxins.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> Soils provide readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead organic matter into various nutrient forms.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Description">Description</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Description">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px">
|
||
<div style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black">
|
||
<div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:black"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 307.76835371753px; border-left-color:grey"></div>
|
||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:grey"></div>
|
||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:grey"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 82.727194597248px; border-left-color:brown"></div>
|
||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:brown"></div>
|
||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:brown"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:90.482705246602px 42.577929156507px 0 0; border-top-color:yellow"></div>
|
||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:yellow"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:0px 100px 0 0; border-top-color:cyan"></div>
|
||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:cyan"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:0; border-width:0 0px 100px 0; border-right-color:blue"></div>
|
||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;right:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 100px 0;border-color:blue"></div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="thumbcaption">
|
||
<p>Components of a loam soil by percent volume
|
||
</p>
|
||
<div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:blue; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Water (25%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:cyan; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Gases (25%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:yellow; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Sand (18%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:brown; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Silt (18%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:grey; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Clay (9%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:black; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Organic matter (5%)</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div></div>
|
||
<p>A typical soil is about 50% solids (45% mineral and 5% organic matter), and 50% voids (or pores) of which half is occupied by water and half by gas.<sup id="cite_ref-McClellan2017_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClellan2017-33">[33]</a></sup> The percent soil mineral and organic content can be treated as a constant (in the short term), while the percent soil water and gas content is considered highly variable whereby a rise in one is simultaneously balanced by a reduction in the other.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> The pore space allows for the infiltration and movement of air and water, both of which are critical for life existing in soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Vannier1987_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vannier1987-35">[35]</a></sup> Compaction, a common problem with soils, reduces this space, preventing air and water from reaching plant roots and soil organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Given sufficient time, an undifferentiated soil will evolve a <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">soil profile</a> which consists of two or more layers, referred to as <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">soil horizons</a>, that differ in one or more properties such as in their texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, color, and reactivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Buol_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buol-10">[10]</a></sup> The horizons differ greatly in thickness and generally lack sharp boundaries; their development is dependent on the type of <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent material</a>, the processes that modify those parent materials, and the <a href="/wiki/Soil#soil-forming_factors" title="Soil">soil-forming factors</a> that influence those processes. The biological influences on soil properties are strongest near the surface, while the geochemical influences on soil properties increase with depth. Mature soil profiles typically include three basic master horizons: A, B, and C. The <a href="/wiki/Solum" title="Solum">solum</a> normally includes the A and B horizons. The living component of the soil is largely confined to the solum, and is generally more prominent in the A horizon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimonson195717_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonson195717-37">[37]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">soil texture</a> is determined by the relative proportions of the individual particles of sand, silt, and clay that make up the soil. The interaction of the individual mineral particles with organic matter, water, gases via <a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" title="Biotic component">biotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiotic">abiotic</a> processes causes those particles to <a href="/wiki/Flocculate" class="mw-redirect" title="Flocculate">flocculate</a> (stick together) to form <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">aggregates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ped" title="Ped">peds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bronick2005_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bronick2005-38">[38]</a></sup> Where these aggregates can be identified, a soil can be said to be developed, and can be described further in terms of color, <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consistency" title="Consistency">consistency</a>, reaction (<a href="/wiki/Acidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Acidity">acidity</a>), etc.
|
||
</p><p>Water is a critical agent in soil development due to its involvement in the dissolution, precipitation, erosion, transport, and deposition of the materials of which a soil is composed.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> The mixture of water and dissolved or suspended materials that occupy the soil <a href="/wiki/Pore_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Pore space">pore space</a> is called the soil solution. Since <a href="#Water">soil water</a> is never pure water, but contains hundreds of dissolved organic and mineral substances, it may be more accurately called the soil solution. Water is central to the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">leaching</a> of minerals from the <a href="/wiki/Soil_profile" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil profile">soil profile</a>. Finally, water affects the type of vegetation that grows in a soil, which in turn affects the development of the soil, a complex feedback which is exemplified in the dynamics of banded vegetation patterns in semi-arid regions.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>Soils supply plants with nutrients, most of which are held in place by particles of <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture#Soil_separates" title="Soil texture">clay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">organic matter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloids</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> The nutrients may be <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorbed</a> on clay mineral surfaces, bound within clay minerals (<a href="/wiki/Absorption_(chemistry)" title="Absorption (chemistry)">absorbed</a>), or bound within organic compounds as part of the living <a href="/wiki/Soil_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil organism">organisms</a> or dead <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a>. These bound nutrients interact with soil water to buffer the soil solution composition (attenuate changes in the soil solution) as soils wet up or dry out, as plants take up nutrients, as salts are leached, or as acids or alkalis are added.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CEC_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CEC-43">[43]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>Plant nutrient availability is affected by <a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">soil pH</a>, which is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the soil solution. Soil pH is a function of many soil forming factors, and is generally lower (more acid) where weathering is more advanced.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>Most plant nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, originate from the <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> that make up the soil parent material. Some nitrogen originates from rain as dilute <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> but most of the nitrogen is available in soils as a result of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a> by bacteria. Once in the soil-plant system, most nutrients are recycled through living organisms, plant and microbial residues (<a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a>), mineral-bound forms, and the soil solution. Both living <a href="/wiki/Soil_microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil microbe">microorganisms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a> are of critical importance to this recycling, and thereby to soil formation and soil fertility.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> Microbial activity in soils may release nutrients from minerals or organic matter for use by plants and other microorganisms, sequester (incorporate) them into living cells, or cause their loss from the soil by <a href="/wiki/Volatilisation" title="Volatilisation">volatilisation</a> (loss to the atmosphere as gases) or <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">leaching</a>.
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||
</p>
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||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_studies">History of studies</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History of studies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fertility">Fertility</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fertility">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>The history of the study of soil is intimately tied to humans' urgent need to provide food for themselves and forage for their animals. Throughout history, civilizations have prospered or declined as a function of the availability and productivity of their soils.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>The Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> (450–355 BCE) is credited with being the first to expound upon the merits of green-manuring crops: "But then whatever weeds are upon the ground, being turned into earth, enrich the soil as much as dung."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna19774_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna19774-48">[48]</a></sup>
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a>'s "Husbandry," circa 60 CE, advocated the use of lime and that <a href="/wiki/Clover" title="Clover">clover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Green_manure" title="Green manure">green manure</a>) should be turned under, and was used by 15 generations (450 years) under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> until its collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna19774_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna19774-48">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19571_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19571-49">[49]</a></sup> From the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Rome">fall of Rome</a> to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result, crop yields were low. During the European <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-%27Awwam" title="Ibn al-'Awwam">Yahya Ibn al-'Awwam</a>'s handbook,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> with its emphasis on irrigation, guided the people of North Africa, Spain and the Middle East; a translation of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States when under Spanish influence.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Olivier_de_Serres" title="Olivier de Serres">Olivier de Serres</a>, considered as the father of French <a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">agronomy</a>, was the first to suggest the abandonment of <a href="/wiki/Fallowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallowing">fallowing</a> and its replacement by hay <a href="/wiki/Meadows" class="mw-redirect" title="Meadows">meadows</a> within <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotations</a>, and he highlighted the importance of soil (the French <a href="/wiki/Terroir" title="Terroir">terroir</a>) in the management of <a href="/wiki/Vineyard" title="Vineyard">vineyards</a>. His famous book <i>Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et mesnage des champs</i><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> contributed to the rise of modern, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainable agriculture</a> and to the collapse of old <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural practices">agricultural practices</a> such as soil improvement (amendment) for crops by the lifting of <a href="/wiki/Forest_litter" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest litter">forest litter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assarting" title="Assarting">assarting</a>, which ruined the soils of western Europe during <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and even later on according to regions.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Experiments into what made plants grow first led to the idea that the ash left behind when plant matter was burned was the essential element but overlooked the role of nitrogen, which is not left on the ground after combustion, a belief which prevailed until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> In about 1635, the Flemish chemist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a> thought he had proved water to be the essential element from his famous five years' experiment with a willow tree grown with only the addition of rainwater. His conclusion came from the fact that the increase in the plant's weight had apparently been produced only by the addition of water, with no reduction in the soil's weight.<sup id="cite_ref-Brady_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brady-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19573_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19573-56">[56]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Woodward_(naturalist)" title="John Woodward (naturalist)">John Woodward</a> (d. 1728) experimented with various types of water ranging from clean to muddy and found muddy water the best, and so he concluded that earthy matter was the essential element. Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant. Still others held that the vital growth principal was something passed from dead plants or animals to the new plants. At the start of the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Jethro_Tull_(agriculturist)" title="Jethro Tull (agriculturist)">Jethro Tull</a> demonstrated that it was beneficial to cultivate (stir) the soil, but his opinion that the stirring made the fine parts of soil available for plant absorption was erroneous.<sup id="cite_ref-Brady_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brady-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19572_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19572-57">[57]</a></sup>
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</p><p>As chemistry developed, it was applied to the investigation of <a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil fertility</a>. The French chemist <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> showed in about 1778 that plants and animals must [combust] oxygen internally to live and was able to deduce that most of the 165-pound weight of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">van Helmont</a>'s willow tree derived from air.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> It was the French agriculturalist <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Boussingault" title="Jean-Baptiste Boussingault">Jean-Baptiste Boussingault</a> who by means of experimentation obtained evidence showing that the main sources of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen for plants were air and water, while nitrogen was taken from soil.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> in his book <i>Organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology</i> (published 1840), asserted that the chemicals in plants must have come from the soil and air and that to maintain soil fertility, the used minerals must be replaced.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> Liebig nevertheless believed the nitrogen was supplied from the air. The enrichment of soil with guano by the Incas was rediscovered in 1802, by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>. This led to its mining and that of Chilean nitrate and to its application to soil in the United States and Europe after 1840.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
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</p><p>The work of Liebig was a revolution for agriculture, and so other investigators started experimentation based on it. In England <a href="/wiki/John_Bennet_Lawes" title="John Bennet Lawes">John Bennet Lawes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry_Gilbert" title="Joseph Henry Gilbert">Joseph Henry Gilbert</a> worked in the <a href="/wiki/Rothamsted_Research" title="Rothamsted Research">Rothamsted Experimental Station</a>, founded by the former, and (re)discovered that plants took nitrogen from the soil, and that salts needed to be in an available state to be absorbed by plants. Their investigations also produced the "<a href="/wiki/Superphosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Superphosphate">superphosphate</a>", consisting in the acid treatment of phosphate rock.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19574_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19574-62">[62]</a></sup> This led to the invention and use of salts of potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) as fertilizers. Ammonia generated by the production of <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> was recovered and used as fertiliser.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> Finally, the chemical basis of nutrients delivered to the soil in manure was understood and in the mid-19th century chemical fertilisers were applied. However, the dynamic interaction of soil and its life forms still awaited discovery.
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</p><p>In 1856 J. Thomas Way discovered that ammonia contained in fertilisers was transformed into nitrates,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> and twenty years later <a href="/wiki/Robert_Warington" title="Robert Warington">Robert Warington</a> proved that this transformation was done by living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> In 1890 <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Winogradsky" title="Sergei Winogradsky">Sergei Winogradsky</a> announced he had found the bacteria responsible for this transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
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</p><p>It was known that certain <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a> could take up nitrogen from the air and fix it to the soil but it took the development of bacteriology towards the end of the 19th century to lead to an understanding of the role played in <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a> by bacteria. The symbiosis of bacteria and leguminous roots, and the fixation of nitrogen by the bacteria, were simultaneously discovered by the German agronomist <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Hellriegel" title="Hermann Hellriegel">Hermann Hellriegel</a> and the Dutch microbiologist <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19574_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19574-62">[62]</a></sup>
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">Crop rotation</a>, mechanisation, chemical and natural fertilisers led to a doubling of wheat yields in western Europe between 1800 and 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19571–4_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19571–4-67">[67]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Formation">Formation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>The scientists who studied the soil in connection with agricultural practices had considered it mainly as a static substrate. However, soil is the result of evolution from more ancient geological materials, under the action of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">biotic</a> and abiotic (not associated with life) processes. After studies of the improvement of the soil commenced, others began to study soil genesis and as a result also soil types and classifications.
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</p><p>In 1860, in Mississippi, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_W._Hilgard" title="Eugene W. Hilgard">Eugene W. Hilgard</a> studied the relationship among rock material, climate, and vegetation, and the type of soils that were developed. He realised that the soils were dynamic, and considered soil types classification.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> Unfortunately his work was not continued. At about the same time, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Albert_Fallou" title="Friedrich Albert Fallou">Friedrich Albert Fallou</a> was describing soil profiles and relating soil characteristics to their formation as part of his professional work evaluating forest and farm land for the principality of <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>. His 1857 book, Anfangsgründe der Bodenkunde (First principles of soil science) established modern soil science.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup> Contemporary with Fallou's work, and driven by the same need to accurately assess land for equitable taxation, <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Dokuchaev" title="Vasily Dokuchaev">Vasily Dokuchaev</a> led a team of soil scientists in Russia who conducted an extensive survey of soils, observing that similar basic rocks, climate and vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types, and established the concepts for soil classifications. Due to language barriers, the work of this team was not communicated to western Europe until 1914 through a publication in German by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Glinka" title="Konstantin Glinka">Konstantin Dmitrievich Glinka</a>, a member of the Russian team.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Curtis_F._Marbut" title="Curtis F. Marbut">Curtis F. Marbut</a> was influenced by the work of the Russian team, translated Glinka's publication into English,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> and as he was placed in charge of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Cooperative_Soil_Survey" title="National Cooperative Soil Survey">National Cooperative Soil Survey</a>, applied it to a national soil classification system.<sup id="cite_ref-Brady_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brady-55">[55]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Formation_2">Formation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>Soil formation, or <a href="/wiki/Pedogenesis" title="Pedogenesis">pedogenesis</a>, is the combined effect of physical, chemical, biological and <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> processes working on soil parent material. Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated and <a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloids</a> are washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layer called the B horizon. This is a somewhat arbitrary definition as mixtures of sand, silt, clay and humus will support biological and agricultural activity before that time. These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity. As a result, layers (horizons) form in the soil profile. The alteration and movement of materials within a soil causes the formation of distinctive <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizons" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil horizons">soil horizons</a>. However, more recent definitions of soil embrace soils without any organic matter, such as those <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regoliths</a> that formed on Mars<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></sup> and analogous conditions in planet Earth deserts.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
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</p><p>An example of the development of a soil would begin with the weathering of lava flow bedrock, which would produce the purely mineral-based parent material from which the soil texture forms. Soil development would proceed most rapidly from bare rock of recent flows in a warm climate, under heavy and frequent rainfall. Under such conditions, plants (in a first stage <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-fixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-fixing">nitrogen-fixing</a> <a href="/wiki/Lichens" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichens">lichens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> then <a href="/wiki/Epilithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epilithic">epilithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Higher_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher plants">higher plants</a>) become established very quickly on <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> lava, even though there is very little organic material. The plants are supported by the porous rock as it is filled with <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a>-bearing water that carries minerals dissolved from the rocks. Crevasses and pockets, local topography of the rocks, would hold fine materials and harbour plant roots. The developing plant roots are associated with mineral-<a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizal fungi</a><sup id="cite_ref-Van_Schöll2006_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Schöll2006-74">[74]</a></sup> that assist in breaking up the porous lava, and by these means organic matter and a finer mineral soil accumulate with time. Such initial stages of soil development have been described on volcanoes,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> inselbergs,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> and glacial moraines.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Factors">Factors</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Factors">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>How soil formation proceeds is influenced by at least five classic factors that are intertwined in the evolution of a soil. They are: parent material, climate, topography (relief), organisms, and time.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenny1941_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenny1941-78">[78]</a></sup> When reordered to climate, relief, organisms, parent material, and time, they form the acronym CROPT.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Parent_material">Parent material</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Parent material">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>The mineral material from which a soil forms is called <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent material</a>. Rock, whether its origin is igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic, is the source of all soil mineral materials and the origin of all plant nutrients with the exceptions of nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. As the parent material is chemically and physically weathered, transported, deposited and precipitated, it is transformed into a soil.
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</p><p>Typical soil parent mineral materials are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197720–21_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197720–21-80">[80]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">Quartz</a>: SiO<sub>2</sub></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">Calcite</a>: CaCO<sub>3</sub></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">Feldspar</a>: KAlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">Mica</a> (biotite): K(Mg,Fe)<sub>3</sub>AlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>10</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub></li></ul>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%B6ssacker.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/L%C3%B6ssacker.jpg/220px-L%C3%B6ssacker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/L%C3%B6ssacker.jpg/330px-L%C3%B6ssacker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/L%C3%B6ssacker.jpg/440px-L%C3%B6ssacker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="795" data-file-height="596" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%B6ssacker.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Soil, on an agricultural field in Germany, which has formed on <a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">loess</a> parent material.</div></div></div>
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<p>Parent materials are classified according to how they came to be deposited. Residual materials are mineral materials that have weathered in place from primary <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a>. Transported materials are those that have been deposited by water, wind, ice or gravity. Cumulose material is organic matter that has grown and accumulates in place.
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</p><p>Residual soils are soils that develop from their underlying parent rocks and have the same general chemistry as those rocks. The soils found on mesas, plateaux, and plains are residual soils. In the United States as little as three percent of the soils are residual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197721_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197721-81">[81]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Most soils derive from transported materials that have been moved many miles by wind, water, ice and gravity.
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</p>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">Aeolian processes</a> (movement by wind) are capable of moving silt and fine sand many hundreds of miles, forming <a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">loess</a> soils (60–90 percent silt),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197724_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197724-82">[82]</a></sup> common in the Midwest of North America, north-western Europe, Argentina and Central Asia. Clay is seldom moved by wind as it forms stable aggregates.</li>
|
||
<li>Water-transported materials are classed as either alluvial, lacustrine, or marine. <a href="/wiki/Alluvium" title="Alluvium">Alluvial materials</a> are those moved and deposited by flowing water. <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">Sedimentary deposits</a> settled in lakes are called <a href="/wiki/Lacustrine_plain" title="Lacustrine plain">lacustrine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lake_Bonneville" title="Lake Bonneville">Lake Bonneville</a> and many soils around the Great Lakes of the United States are examples. Marine deposits, such as soils along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Valley" title="Imperial Valley">Imperial Valley</a> of California of the United States, are the beds of ancient seas that have been revealed as the land uplifted.</li>
|
||
<li>Ice moves parent material and makes deposits in the form of terminal and lateral <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">moraines</a> in the case of stationary glaciers. Retreating glaciers leave smoother ground moraines and in all cases, outwash plains are left as alluvial deposits are moved downstream from the glacier.</li>
|
||
<li>Parent material moved by gravity is obvious at the base of steep slopes as <a href="/wiki/Scree" title="Scree">talus cones</a> and is called <a href="/wiki/Colluvial_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Colluvial material">colluvial material</a>.</li></ul>
|
||
<p>Cumulose parent material is not moved but originates from deposited organic material. This includes <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muck_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muck (soil)">muck soils</a> and results from preservation of plant residues by the low oxygen content of a high water table. While peat may form sterile soils, muck soils may be very fertile.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Weathering">Weathering</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Weathering">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
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<p>The <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> of parent material takes the form of physical weathering (disintegration), chemical weathering (decomposition) and chemical transformation. Generally, minerals that are formed under high temperatures and pressures at great depths within the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a> are less resistant to weathering, while minerals formed at low temperature and pressure environment of the surface are more resistant to weathering.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Weathering is usually confined to the top few meters of geologic material, because physical, chemical, and biological stresses and fluctuations generally decrease with depth.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> Physical disintegration begins as rocks that have solidified deep in the Earth are exposed to lower pressure near the surface and swell and become mechanically unstable. Chemical decomposition is a function of mineral solubility, the rate of which doubles with each 10 °C rise in temperature, but is strongly dependent on water to effect chemical changes. Rocks that will decompose in a few years in tropical climates will remain unaltered for millennia in deserts.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilluly1975_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilluly1975-7">[7]</a></sup> Structural changes are the result of hydration, oxidation, and reduction. Chemical weathering mainly results from the excretion of <a href="/wiki/Organic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic acids">organic acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chelating" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelating">chelating</a> compounds by bacteria<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup> and fungi,<sup id="cite_ref-Landeweert2001_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landeweert2001-85">[85]</a></sup> thought to increase under present-day <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup>
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</p>
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||
<ul><li><i>Physical disintegration</i> is the first stage in the transformation of parent material into soil. Temperature fluctuations cause expansion and contraction of the rock, splitting it along lines of weakness. Water may then enter the cracks and freeze and cause the physical splitting of material along a path toward the center of the rock, while temperature gradients within the rock can cause exfoliation of "shells". Cycles of wetting and drying cause soil particles to be abraded to a finer size, as does the physical rubbing of material as it is moved by wind, water, and gravity. Water can deposit within rocks minerals that expand upon drying, thereby stressing the rock. Finally, organisms reduce parent material in size and create crevices and pores through the mechanical action of plant roots and the digging activity of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197728–31_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197728–31-87">[87]</a></sup> Grinding of parent material by rock-eating animals also contributes to incipient soil formation.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li><i>Chemical decomposition</i> and <i>structural changes</i> result when minerals are made soluble by water or are changed in structure. The first three of the following list are solubility changes and the last three are structural changes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197731–33_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197731–33-89">[89]</a></sup></li></ul>
|
||
<ol><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Solution" title="Solution">solution</a></i> of salts in water results from the action of bipolar <a href="/wiki/Water_molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Water molecules">water molecules</a> on <a href="/wiki/Ionic_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic salt">ionic salt</a> compounds producing a solution of ions and water, removing those minerals and reducing the rock's integrity, at a rate depending on <a href="/wiki/Water_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Water flow">water flow</a> and pore channels.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">Hydrolysis</a></i> is the transformation of minerals into <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polar</a> molecules by the splitting of intervening water. This results in soluble <a href="/wiki/Acid-base" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-base">acid-base</a> pairs. For example, the hydrolysis of <a href="/wiki/Orthoclase" title="Orthoclase">orthoclase</a>-<a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a> transforms it to acid <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> clay and basic <a href="/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide">potassium hydroxide</a>, both of which are more soluble.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li>In <i><a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">carbonation</a></i>, the solution of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> in water forms <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a>. Carbonic acid will transform <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> into more soluble <a href="/wiki/Calcium_bicarbonate" title="Calcium bicarbonate">calcium bicarbonate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Hydration_reaction" title="Hydration reaction">Hydration</a></i> is the inclusion of water in a mineral structure, causing it to swell and leaving it stressed and easily <a href="/wiki/Chemical_decomposition" title="Chemical decomposition">decomposed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">Oxidation</a></i> of a mineral compound is the inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in a mineral, causing it to increase its <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation number">oxidation number</a> and swell due to the relatively large size of oxygen, leaving it stressed and more easily attacked by water (hydrolysis) or carbonic acid (carbonation).<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">Reduction</a></i>, the opposite of oxidation, means the removal of oxygen, hence the oxidation number of some part of the mineral is reduced, which occurs when oxygen is scarce. The reduction of minerals leaves them electrically unstable, more soluble and internally stressed and easily decomposed. It mainly occurs in <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogged</a> conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup></li></ol>
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<p>Of the above, hydrolysis and carbonation are the most effective, in particular in regions of high rainfall, temperature and physical <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weathering">Chemical weathering</a> becomes more effective as the <a href="/wiki/Surface_area" title="Surface area">surface area</a> of the rock increases, thus is favoured by physical disintegration.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup> This stems in latitudinal and altitudinal climate gradients in <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a> formation.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup>
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Saprolite" title="Saprolite">Saprolite</a> is a particular example of a residual soil formed from the transformation of granite, metamorphic and other types of bedrock into clay minerals. Often called [weathered granite], saprolite is the result of weathering processes that include: <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">chelation</a> from organic compounds, <a href="/wiki/Hydration_reaction" title="Hydration reaction">hydration</a> (the solution of minerals in water with resulting cation and anion pairs) and physical processes that include <a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">freezing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thawing" class="mw-redirect" title="Thawing">thawing</a>. The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> material, its physical features, including grain size and degree of consolidation, and the rate and type of weathering transforms the parent material into a different mineral. The texture, pH and mineral constituents of saprolite are inherited from its parent material. This process is also called <i>arenization</i>, resulting in the formation of sandy soils (granitic arenas), thanks to the much higher resistance of quartz compared to other mineral components of granite (<a href="/wiki/Micas" class="mw-redirect" title="Micas">micas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphiboles" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphiboles">amphiboles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldspars" class="mw-redirect" title="Feldspars">feldspars</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
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||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Climate">Climate</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Climate">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>The principal climatic variables influencing soil formation are effective <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> (i.e., precipitation minus <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>) and temperature, both of which affect the rates of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Temperature and moisture both influence the organic matter content of soil through their effects on the balance between <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a>: the colder or drier the climate the lesser atmospheric carbon is fixed as organic matter while the lesser organic matter is decomposed.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Climate is the dominant factor in <a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil formation">soil formation</a>, and soils show the distinctive characteristics of the <a href="/wiki/Climate_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate zone">climate zones</a> in which they form, with a feedback to climate through transfer of carbon stocked in soil horizons back to the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson-17">[17]</a></sup> If warm temperatures and abundant water are present in the profile at the same time, the processes of <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">leaching</a>, and plant growth will be maximized. According to the climatic determination of <a href="/wiki/Biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomes">biomes</a>, humid climates favor the growth of trees. In contrast, grasses are the dominant native vegetation in subhumid and <a href="/wiki/Semiarid" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiarid">semiarid</a> regions, while shrubs and brush of various kinds dominate in arid areas.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Water is essential for all the major chemical weathering reactions. To be effective in soil formation, water must penetrate the <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a>. The seasonal rainfall distribution, evaporative losses, site <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soil_permeability" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil permeability">soil permeability</a> interact to determine how effectively precipitation can influence soil formation. The greater the depth of water penetration, the greater the depth of weathering of the soil and its development. Surplus water percolating through the soil profile transports soluble and suspended materials from the upper layers (<a href="/wiki/Eluviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Eluviation">eluviation</a>) to the lower layers (<a href="/wiki/Illuviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuviation">illuviation</a>), including clay particles<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_organic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolved organic matter">dissolved organic matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup> It may also carry away soluble materials in the surface drainage waters. Thus, percolating water stimulates weathering reactions and helps differentiate soil horizons. Likewise, a deficiency of water is a major factor in determining the characteristics of soils of dry regions. Soluble salts are not leached from these soils, and in some cases they build up to levels that curtail plant<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup> and microbial growth.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> Soil profiles in arid and semi-arid regions are also apt to accumulate carbonates and certain types of expansive clays (<a href="/wiki/Calcrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcrete">calcrete</a> or <a href="/wiki/Caliche" title="Caliche">caliche</a> horizons).<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> In tropical soils, when the soil has been deprived of vegetation (e.g. by deforestation) and thereby is submitted to intense evaporation, the upward capillary movement of water, which has dissolved iron and aluminum salts, is responsible for the formation of a superficial hard pan of <a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">laterite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a>, respectively, which is improper for cutivation, a known case of irreversible <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lateritization" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateritization">lateritization</a>, bauxitization).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup>
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</p><p>The direct influences of climate include:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197735_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197735-110">[110]</a></sup>
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</p>
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||
<ul><li>A shallow accumulation of lime in low rainfall areas as <a href="/wiki/Caliche" title="Caliche">caliche</a></li>
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<li>Formation of acid soils in humid areas</li>
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||
<li>Erosion of soils on steep hillsides</li>
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||
<li>Deposition of eroded materials downstream</li>
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||
<li>Very intense chemical weathering, leaching, and erosion in warm and humid regions where soil does not freeze</li></ul>
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||
<p>Climate directly affects the rate of weathering and leaching. Wind moves sand and smaller particles (dust), especially in arid regions where there is little plant cover, depositing it close<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> or far from the entrainment source.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> The type and amount of precipitation influence soil formation by affecting the movement of ions and particles through the soil, and aid in the development of different soil profiles. Soil profiles are more distinct in wet and cool climates, where organic materials may accumulate, than in wet and warm climates, where organic materials are rapidly consumed.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> The effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock material depends on seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations, which favour <a href="/wiki/Tensile_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile stress">tensile stresses</a> in rock minerals, and thus their mechanical <a href="/wiki/Disaggregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Disaggregation">disaggregation</a>, a process called <i><a href="/wiki/Thermal_fatigue" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal fatigue">thermal fatigue</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup> By the same process <a href="/wiki/Freeze-thaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeze-thaw">freeze-thaw</a> cycles are an effective mechanism which breaks up rocks and other consolidated materials.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Climate also indirectly influences soil formation through the effects of vegetation cover and biological activity, which modify the rates of chemical reactions in the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Topography">Topography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Topography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a>, is characterized by the inclination (<a href="/wiki/Slope" title="Slope">slope</a>), <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">elevation</a>, and orientation of the terrain. Topography determines the rate of precipitation or <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> and rate of formation or erosion of the surface <a href="/wiki/Soil_profile" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil profile">soil profile</a>. The topographical setting may either hasten or retard the work of climatic forces.
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||
</p><p>Steep slopes encourage rapid soil loss by <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and allow less rainfall to enter the soil before running off and hence, little mineral deposition in lower profiles. In semiarid regions, the lower effective rainfall on steeper slopes also results in less complete vegetative cover, so there is less plant contribution to soil formation. For all of these reasons, steep slopes prevent the formation of soil from getting very far ahead of soil destruction. Therefore, soils on steep terrain tend to have rather shallow, poorly developed profiles in comparison to soils on nearby, more level sites.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup>
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</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Swale_(landform)" title="Swale (landform)">swales</a> and depressions where runoff water tends to concentrate, the regolith is usually more deeply weathered and soil profile development is more advanced. However, in the lowest landscape positions, water may saturate the regolith to such a degree that drainage and aeration are restricted. Here, the weathering of some minerals and the decomposition of organic matter are retarded, while the loss of iron and manganese is accelerated. In such low-lying topography, special profile features characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> soils may develop. Depressions allow the accumulation of water, minerals and organic matter and in the extreme, the resulting soils will be <a href="/wiki/Saline_marsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Saline marsh">saline marshes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Peat_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Peat bog">peat bogs</a>. Intermediate topography affords the best conditions for the formation of an agriculturally productive soil.
|
||
</p>
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||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Organisms">Organisms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Organisms">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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||
<p>Soil is the most abundant <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> on Earth, but the vast majority of organisms in soil are <a href="/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a>, a great many of which have not been described.<sup id="cite_ref-Gans2005_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gans2005-118">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nature2008_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature2008-119">[119]</a></sup> There may be a population limit of around one billion cells per gram of soil, but estimates of the number of species vary widely from 50,000 per gram to over a million per gram of soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Gans2005_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gans2005-118">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-roesch_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roesch-120">[120]</a></sup> The total number of organisms and species can vary widely according to soil type, location, and depth.<sup id="cite_ref-nature2008_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature2008-119">[119]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-roesch_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roesch-120">[120]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Plants, <a href="/wiki/Soil_fauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil fauna">animals</a>, fungi, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and humans affect soil formation (see <a href="/wiki/Soil_Biomantle" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Biomantle">soil biomantle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stonelayer" title="Stonelayer">stonelayer</a>). Soil animals, including soil <a href="/wiki/Macrofauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrofauna">macrofauna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_mesofauna" title="Soil mesofauna">soil mesofauna</a>, mix soils as they form <a href="/wiki/Burrow" title="Burrow">burrows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">pores</a>, allowing moisture and gases to move about, a process called <a href="/wiki/Bioturbation" title="Bioturbation">bioturbation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup> In the same way, <a href="/wiki/Plant_roots" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant roots">plant roots</a> penetrate soil horizons and open channels upon decomposition.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></sup> Plants with deep <a href="/wiki/Taproot" title="Taproot">taproots</a> can penetrate many metres through the different soil layers to bring up <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> from deeper in the profile.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup> Plants have fine roots that excrete organic compounds (<a href="/wiki/Sugars" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugars">sugars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic acids">organic acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mucigel" title="Mucigel">mucigel</a>), slough off cells (in particular at their tip) and are easily decomposed, adding organic matter to soil, a process called <i>rhizodeposition</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> Micro-organisms, including fungi and bacteria, effect chemical exchanges between roots and soil and act as a reserve of nutrients in a soil biological <i>hotspot</i> called <a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">rhizosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup> The growth of roots through the soil stimulates <a href="/wiki/Microbial" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial">microbial</a> populations, stimulating in turn the activity of their <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a> (notably <a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">amoeba</a>), thereby increasing the <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil_science)" title="Mineralization (soil science)">mineralization rate</a>, and in last turn root growth, a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> called the soil <a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">microbial loop</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> Out of root influence, in the <a href="/wiki/Bulk_soil" title="Bulk soil">bulk soil</a>, most bacteria are in a quiescent stage, forming micro<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_(composite)" title="Aggregate (composite)">aggregates</a>, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Mucilage" title="Mucilage">mucilaginous</a> colonies to which clay particles are glued, offering them a protection against <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> by soil <a href="/wiki/Microfauna" title="Microfauna">microfauna</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bacteriophagous" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriophagous">bacteriophagous</a> <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nematodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematodes">nematodes</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup> Microaggregates (20-250 μm) are ingested by <a href="/wiki/Soil_mesofauna" title="Soil mesofauna">soil mesofauna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macrofauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrofauna">macrofauna</a>, and bacterial bodies are partly or totally digested in their <a href="/wiki/Guts" class="mw-redirect" title="Guts">guts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Humans impact soil formation by removing vegetation cover with <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogging</a>, lateritization or <a href="/wiki/Podzolization" class="mw-redirect" title="Podzolization">podzolization</a> (according to climate and topography) as the result.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup> Their <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> also mixes the different soil layers, restarting the soil formation process as less weathered material is mixed with the more developed upper layers, resulting in net increased rate of mineral weathering.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Earthworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthworms">Earthworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">ants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termites" class="mw-redirect" title="Termites">termites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mole_(animal)" title="Mole (animal)">moles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gophers">gophers</a>, as well as some <a href="/wiki/Millipedes" class="mw-redirect" title="Millipedes">millipedes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tenebrionid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenebrionid">tenebrionid</a> beetles mix the soil as they burrow, significantly affecting soil formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee1991_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee1991-131">[131]</a></sup> Earthworms ingest soil particles and organic residues, enhancing the availability of plant nutrients in the material that passes through their bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup> They aerate and stir the soil and create stable soil aggregates, after having disrupted links between soil particles during the intestinal transit of ingested soil,<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup> thereby assuring ready infiltration of water.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup> In addition, as ants and termites build mounds, they transport soil materials from one horizon to another.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup> Other important functions are fulfilled by earthworms in the soil ecosystem, in particular their intense <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a> production, both within the intestine and as a lining in their galleries,<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup> exert a <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">priming effect</a> on soil microflora,<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup> giving them the status of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">ecosystem engineers</a>, which they share with ants and termites.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>In general, the mixing of the soil by the activities of animals, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Pedoturbation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedoturbation">pedoturbation</a>, tends to undo or counteract the tendency of other soil-forming processes that create distinct horizons.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></sup> Termites and ants may also retard soil profile development by denuding large areas of soil around their nests, leading to increased loss of soil by erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></sup> Large animals such as gophers, moles, and prairie dogs bore into the lower soil horizons, bringing materials to the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></sup> Their tunnels are often open to the surface, encouraging the movement of water and air into the subsurface layers. In localized areas, they enhance mixing of the lower and upper horizons by creating, and later refilling the tunnels. Old animal burrows in the lower horizons often become filled with soil material from the overlying A horizon, creating profile features known as crotovinas.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Vegetation impacts soils in numerous ways. It can prevent erosion caused by excessive rain that might result from <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></sup> Plants shade soils, keeping them cooler<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup> and slow evaporation of <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil moisture">soil moisture</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup> or conversely, by way of <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>, plants can cause soils to lose moisture, resulting in complex and highly variable relationships between <a href="/wiki/Leaf_area_index" title="Leaf area index">leaf area index</a> (measuring light interception) and moisture loss: more generally plants prevent soil from <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a> during driest months while they dry it during moister months, thereby acting as a buffer against strong moisture variation.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></sup> Plants can form new chemicals that can break down minerals, both directly<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></sup> and indirectly through mycorrhizal fungi<sup id="cite_ref-Landeweert2001_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landeweert2001-85">[85]</a></sup> and rhizosphere bacteria,<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></sup> and improve the soil structure.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup> The type and amount of vegetation depends on climate, topography, soil characteristics and biological factors, mediated or not by human activities.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></sup> Soil factors such as density, depth, chemistry, pH, temperature and moisture greatly affect the type of plants that can grow in a given location. Dead plants and fallen leaves and stems begin their decomposition on the surface. There, organisms feed on them and mix the organic material with the upper soil layers; these added organic compounds become part of the soil formation process.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Human activities widely influence <a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil formation">soil formation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></sup> For example, it is believed that <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> regularly set fires to maintain several large areas of <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairie</a> grasslands in <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, although climate and mammalian <a href="/wiki/Grazing_(behaviour)" title="Grazing (behaviour)">grazers</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Bisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Bisons">bisons</a>) are also advocated to explain the maintenance of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> of North America.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></sup> In more recent times, human destruction of natural vegetation and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> of the soil for <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crop</a> production has abruptly modified soil formation.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></sup> Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigating</a> soil in an <a href="/wiki/Arid" title="Arid">arid</a> region drastically influences soil-forming factors,<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></sup> as does adding fertilizer and lime to soils of low fertility.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Time">Time</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Time">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<p>Time is a factor in the interactions of all the above.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenny1941_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenny1941-78">[78]</a></sup> While a mixture of sand, silt and clay constitute the <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">texture</a> of a soil and the <a href="/wiki/Particle_aggregation" title="Particle aggregation">aggregation</a> of those components produces <a href="/wiki/Ped" title="Ped">peds</a>, the development of a distinct <a href="/wiki/B_horizon" class="mw-redirect" title="B horizon">B horizon</a> marks the development of a soil or <a href="/wiki/Pedogenesis" title="Pedogenesis">pedogenesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></sup> With time, soils will evolve features that depend on the interplay of the prior listed soil-forming factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenny1941_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenny1941-78">[78]</a></sup> It takes decades<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup> to several thousand years for a soil to develop a profile,<sup id="cite_ref-Crews1995_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crews1995-160">[160]</a></sup> although the notion of soil development has been criticized, soil being in a constant state-of-change under the influence of fluctuating soil-forming factors.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></sup> That time period depends strongly on climate, parent material, relief, and biotic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimonson195720–21_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonson195720–21-162">[162]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197726_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197726-163">[163]</a></sup> For example, recently deposited material from a flood exhibits no soil development as there has not been enough time for the material to form a structure that further defines soil.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></sup> The original soil surface is buried, and the formation process must begin anew for this deposit. Over time the soil will develop a profile that depends on the intensities of biota and climate. While a soil can achieve relative stability of its properties for extended periods,<sup id="cite_ref-Crews1995_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crews1995-160">[160]</a></sup> the soil life cycle ultimately ends in soil conditions that leave it vulnerable to erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></sup> Despite the inevitability of soil retrogression and degradation, most soil cycles are long.<sup id="cite_ref-Crews1995_160-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crews1995-160">[160]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soil-forming factors continue to affect soils during their existence, even on "stable" landscapes that are long-enduring, some for millions of years.<sup id="cite_ref-Crews1995_160-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crews1995-160">[160]</a></sup> Materials are deposited on top<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></sup> or are blown or washed from the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a></sup> With additions, removals and alterations, soils are always subject to new conditions. Whether these are slow or rapid changes depends on climate, topography and biological activity.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Time as a soil-forming factor may be investigated by studying soil <a href="/wiki/Chronosequence" title="Chronosequence">chronosequences</a>, in which soils of different ages but with minor differences in other soil-forming factors can be compared.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Physical properties">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Soil_physics" title="Soil physics">Soil physics</a>.</div>
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||
<p>The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance for <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Crop_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop production">crop production</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">texture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">structure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">bulk density</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil" title="Pore space in soil">porosity</a>, consistency, temperature, colour and <a href="/wiki/Soil_resistivity" title="Soil resistivity">resistivity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></sup> Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil mineral particles, called soil separates: <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>. At the next larger scale, soil structures called <a href="/wiki/Ped" title="Ped">peds</a> or more commonly <i>soil aggregates</i> are created from the soil separates when <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a>, clay, <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humus</a>, coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></sup> Soil <a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">bulk density</a>, when determined at standardized moisture conditions, is an estimate of <a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">soil compaction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup> Soil porosity consists of the void part of the soil volume and is occupied by gases or water. Soil consistency is the ability of soil materials to stick together. Soil temperature and colour are self-defining. Resistivity refers to the resistance to conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures which are buried in soil.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></sup> These properties vary through the depth of a soil profile, i.e. through <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizons" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil horizons">soil horizons</a>. Most of these properties determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held within the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<table class="wikitable" style="border-spacing: 5px; margin:auto;">
|
||
<caption><b>Influence of Soil Texture Separates on Some Properties of Soils</b><sup id="cite_ref-Brady_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brady-55">[55]</a></sup>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Property/behavior
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Sand
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Silt
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Clay
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Water-holding capacity</td>
|
||
<td>Low</td>
|
||
<td>Medium to high</td>
|
||
<td>High
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Aeration</td>
|
||
<td>Good</td>
|
||
<td>Medium</td>
|
||
<td>Poor
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Drainage rate</td>
|
||
<td>High</td>
|
||
<td>Slow to medium</td>
|
||
<td>Very slow
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Soil organic matter level</td>
|
||
<td>Low</td>
|
||
<td>Medium to high</td>
|
||
<td>High to medium
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Decomposition of organic matter</td>
|
||
<td>Rapid</td>
|
||
<td>Medium</td>
|
||
<td>Slow
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Warm-up in spring</td>
|
||
<td>Rapid</td>
|
||
<td>Moderate</td>
|
||
<td>Slow
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Compactability</td>
|
||
<td>Low</td>
|
||
<td>Medium</td>
|
||
<td>High
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Susceptibility to wind erosion</td>
|
||
<td>Moderate (High if fine sand)</td>
|
||
<td>High</td>
|
||
<td>Low
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Susceptibility to water erosion</td>
|
||
<td>Low (unless fine sand)</td>
|
||
<td>High</td>
|
||
<td>Low if aggregated, otherwise high
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Shrink/Swell Potential</td>
|
||
<td>Very Low</td>
|
||
<td>Low</td>
|
||
<td>Moderate to very high
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Sealing of ponds, dams, and landfills</td>
|
||
<td>Poor</td>
|
||
<td>Poor</td>
|
||
<td>Good
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Suitability for tillage after rain</td>
|
||
<td>Good</td>
|
||
<td>Medium</td>
|
||
<td>Poor
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Pollutant leaching potential</td>
|
||
<td>High</td>
|
||
<td>Medium</td>
|
||
<td>Low (unless cracked)
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Ability to store plant nutrients</td>
|
||
<td>Poor</td>
|
||
<td>Medium to High</td>
|
||
<td>High
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Resistance to pH change</td>
|
||
<td>Low</td>
|
||
<td>Medium</td>
|
||
<td>High
|
||
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Texture">Texture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Texture">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">Soil texture</a></div>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:SoilTexture_USDA.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/SoilTexture_USDA.png/300px-SoilTexture_USDA.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="288" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/SoilTexture_USDA.png/450px-SoilTexture_USDA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/SoilTexture_USDA.png/600px-SoilTexture_USDA.png 2x" data-file-width="2368" data-file-height="2272" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:SoilTexture_USDA.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Soil_type" title="Soil type">Soil types</a> by clay, silt, and sand composition as used by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">USDA</a></div></div></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kootenay_National_Park_-_Paint_Pots_1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Kootenay_National_Park_-_Paint_Pots_1.jpg/220px-Kootenay_National_Park_-_Paint_Pots_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Kootenay_National_Park_-_Paint_Pots_1.jpg/330px-Kootenay_National_Park_-_Paint_Pots_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Kootenay_National_Park_-_Paint_Pots_1.jpg/440px-Kootenay_National_Park_-_Paint_Pots_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2122" data-file-height="1415" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Kootenay_National_Park_-_Paint_Pots_1.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Iron-rich soil near Paint Pots in <a href="/wiki/Kootenay_National_Park" title="Kootenay National Park">Kootenay National Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></div></div></div>
|
||
<p>The mineral components of soil are <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>, and their relative proportions determine a soil's texture. Properties that are influenced by soil texture include <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil" title="Pore space in soil">porosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (earth sciences)">permeability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrink%E2%80%93swell_capacity" title="Shrink–swell capacity">shrink-swell rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Field_capacity" title="Field capacity">water-holding capacity</a>, and susceptibility to erosion. In the illustrated USDA textural classification triangle, the only soil in which neither sand, silt nor clay predominates is called <a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">loam</a>. While even pure sand, silt or clay may be considered a soil, from the perspective of conventional <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> a loam soil with a small amount of organic material is considered "ideal", inasmuch as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilizers">fertilizers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Manure" title="Manure">manure</a> are currently used to mitigate nutrient losses due to <a href="/wiki/Crop_yields" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop yields">crop yields</a> in the long term.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></sup> The mineral constituents of a loam soil might be 40% sand, 40% silt and the balance 20% clay by weight. Soil texture affects soil behaviour, in particular, its retention capacity for nutrients (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology#Soil_moisture_dynamics" title="Ecohydrology">water</a>.
|
||
</p><p>Sand and silt are the products of physical and chemical <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Parent_rock" title="Parent rock">parent rock</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Jenny1941_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenny1941-78">[78]</a></sup> clay, on the other hand, is most often the product of the precipitation of the dissolved parent rock as a secondary mineral, except when derived from the weathering of <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></sup> It is the surface area to volume ratio (<a href="/wiki/Specific_surface_area" title="Specific surface area">specific surface area</a>) of soil particles and the unbalanced ionic <a href="/wiki/Electric_charges" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric charges">electric charges</a> within those that determine their role in the <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a> of soil, as measured by its <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Petersen_1996_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petersen_1996-178">[178]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></sup> Sand is least active, having the least specific surface area, followed by silt; clay is the most active. Sand's greatest benefit to soil is that it resists compaction and increases soil porosity, although this property stands only for pure sand, not for sand mixed with smaller minerals which fill the voids among sand grains.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></sup> Silt is mineralogically like sand but with its higher specific surface area it is more chemically and physically active than sand. But it is the clay content of soil, with its very high specific surface area and generally large number of negative charges, that gives a soil its high retention capacity for water and nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-Petersen_1996_178-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Petersen_1996-178">[178]</a></sup> Clay soils also resist wind and water erosion better than silty and sandy soils, as the particles bond tightly to each other,<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a></sup>
|
||
and that with a strong mitigation effect of organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Sand is the most stable of the mineral components of soil; it consists of rock fragments, primarily <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> particles, ranging in size from 2.0 to 0.05 mm (0.0787 to 0.0020 in) in diameter. Silt ranges in size from 0.05 to 0.002 mm (0.001969 to 7.9<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>−5</sup> in). Clay cannot be resolved by optical microscopes as its particles are 0.002 mm (7.9<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>−5</sup> in) or less in diameter and a thickness of only 10 <a href="/wiki/Angstroms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angstroms">angstroms</a> (10<sup>−10</sup> m).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195732–33_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195732–33-183">[183]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlemming1957331_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlemming1957331-184">[184]</a></sup> In medium-textured soils, clay is often washed downward through the soil profile (a process called <a href="/wiki/Eluviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Eluviation">eluviation</a>) and accumulates in the subsoil (a process called <a href="/wiki/Illuviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuviation">illuviation</a>). There is no clear relationship between the size of soil mineral components and their mineralogical nature: sand and silt particles can be <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Siliceous" class="mw-redirect" title="Siliceous">siliceous</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a></sup> while textural clay (0.002 mm (7.9<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>−5</sup> in)) can be made of very fine quartz particles as well as of multi-layered secondary minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a></sup> Soil mineral components belonging to a given textural class may thus share properties linked to their <a href="/wiki/Specific_surface_area" title="Specific surface area">specific surface area</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Moisture_retention" class="mw-redirect" title="Moisture retention">moisture retention</a>) but not those linked to their chemical composition (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a>).
|
||
</p><p>Soil components larger than 2.0 mm (0.079 in) are classed as rock and gravel and are removed before determining the percentages of the remaining components and the textural class of the soil, but are included in the name. For example, a sandy <a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">loam</a> soil with 20% gravel would be called gravelly sandy loam.
|
||
</p><p>When the organic component of a soil is substantial, the soil is called organic soil rather than mineral soil. A soil is called organic if:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li>Mineral fraction is 0% clay and organic matter is 20% or more</li>
|
||
<li>Mineral fraction is 0% to 50% clay and organic matter is between 20% and 30%</li>
|
||
<li>Mineral fraction is 50% or more clay and organic matter 30% or more.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197753_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197753-187">[187]</a></sup></li></ol>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Structure">Structure</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ped" title="Ped">Ped</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">Soil structure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Structural_Soil" title="Structural Soil">Structural Soil</a></div>
|
||
<p>The clumping of the soil textural components of sand, silt and clay causes <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_(geology)" title="Aggregate (geology)">aggregates</a> to form and the further association of those aggregates into larger units creates <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">soil structures</a> called peds (a contraction of the word <a href="/wiki/Pedolith" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedolith">pedolith</a>). The adhesion of the soil textural components by organic substances, iron oxides, carbonates, clays, and silica, the breakage of those aggregates from expansion-contraction caused by <a href="/wiki/Frost_weathering" title="Frost weathering">freezing-thawing</a> and wetting-drying cycles,<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a></sup> and the build-up of aggregates by soil animals, microbial colonies and root tips<sup id="cite_ref-Oades1993_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oades1993-189">[189]</a></sup> shape soil into distinct geometric forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Bronick2005_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bronick2005-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee1991_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee1991-131">[131]</a></sup> The peds evolve into units which have various shapes, sizes and degrees of development.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a></sup> A soil clod, however, is not a ped but rather a mass of soil that results from mechanical disturbance of the soil such as <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">cultivation</a>. Soil structure affects <a href="/wiki/Aeration" title="Aeration">aeration</a>, water movement, conduction of heat, plant root growth and resistance to erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a></sup> Water, in turn, has a strong effect on soil structure, directly via the dissolution and precipitation of minerals, the mechanical destruction of aggregates (<a href="/wiki/Slaking_(geology)" title="Slaking (geology)">slaking</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a></sup> and indirectly by promoting plant, animal and microbial growth.
|
||
</p><p>Soil structure often gives clues to its texture, organic matter content, biological activity, past soil evolution, human use, and the chemical and mineralogical conditions under which the soil formed. While texture is defined by the mineral component of a soil and is an innate property of the soil that does not change with agricultural activities, soil structure can be improved or destroyed by the choice and timing of farming practices.<sup id="cite_ref-Bronick2005_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bronick2005-38">[38]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soil structural classes:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197755–56_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197755–56-193">[193]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li>Types: <b>Shape</b> and arrangement of peds
|
||
<ol><li>Platy: Peds are flattened one atop the other 1–10 mm thick. Found in the A-horizon of forest soils and lake sedimentation.</li>
|
||
<li>Prismatic and Columnar: Prismlike peds are long in the vertical dimension, 10–100 mm wide. Prismatic peds have flat tops, columnar peds have rounded tops. Tend to form in the B-horizon in high sodium soil where clay has accumulated.</li>
|
||
<li>Angular and subangular: Blocky peds are imperfect cubes, 5–50 mm, angular have sharp edges, subangular have rounded edges. Tend to form in the B-horizon where clay has accumulated and indicate poor water penetration.</li>
|
||
<li>Granular and Crumb: Spheroid peds of polyhedrons, 1–10 mm, often found in the A-horizon in the presence of organic material. Crumb peds are more porous and are considered ideal.</li></ol></li>
|
||
<li>Classes: <b>Size</b> of peds whose ranges depend upon the above type
|
||
<ol><li>Very fine or very thin: <1 mm platy and spherical; <5 mm blocky; <10 mm prismlike.</li>
|
||
<li>Fine or thin: 1–2 mm platy, and spherical; 5–10 mm blocky; 10–20 mm prismlike.</li>
|
||
<li>Medium: 2–5 mm platy, granular; 10–20 mm blocky; 20–50 prismlike.</li>
|
||
<li>Coarse or thick: 5–10 mm platy, granular; 20–50 mm blocky; 50–100 mm prismlike.</li>
|
||
<li>Very coarse or very thick: >10 mm platy, granular; >50 mm blocky; >100 mm prismlike.</li></ol></li>
|
||
<li>Grades: Is a measure of the degree of <b>development</b> or cementation within the peds that results in their strength and stability.
|
||
<ol><li>Weak: Weak cementation allows peds to fall apart into the three textural constituents, sand, silt and clay.</li>
|
||
<li>Moderate: Peds are not distinct in undisturbed soil but when removed they break into aggregates, some broken aggregates and little unaggregated material. This is considered ideal.</li>
|
||
<li>Strong:Peds are distinct before removed from the profile and do not break apart easily.</li>
|
||
<li>Structureless: Soil is entirely cemented together in one great mass such as slabs of clay or no cementation at all such as with sand.</li></ol></li></ol>
|
||
<p>At the largest scale, the forces that shape a soil's structure result from <a href="/wiki/Shrink%E2%80%93swell_capacity" title="Shrink–swell capacity">swelling and shrinkage</a> that initially tend to act horizontally, causing vertically oriented prismatic peds. This mechanical process is mainly exemplified in the development of <a href="/wiki/Vertisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertisols">vertisols</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a></sup> Clayey soil, due to its differential drying rate with respect to the surface, will induce horizontal cracks, reducing columns to blocky peds.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a></sup> Roots, rodents, worms, and freezing-thawing cycles further break the peds into smaller peds of a more or less spherical shape.<sup id="cite_ref-Oades1993_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oades1993-189">[189]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>At a smaller scale, plant roots extend into voids (<a href="/wiki/Macropores" class="mw-redirect" title="Macropores">macropores</a>) and remove water<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a></sup> causing macroporosity to increase and <a href="/wiki/Microporosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Microporosity">microporosity</a> to decrease,<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a></sup> thereby decreasing aggregate size.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a></sup> At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Root_hairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Root hairs">root hairs</a> and fungal <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a> create microscopic tunnels that break up peds.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>At an even smaller scale, soil aggregation continues as bacteria and fungi exude sticky polysaccharides which bind soil into smaller peds.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a></sup> The addition of the raw organic matter that bacteria and fungi feed upon encourages the formation of this desirable soil structure.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>At the lowest scale, the soil chemistry affects the aggregation or <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(geology)" title="Dispersion (geology)">dispersal</a> of soil particles. The clay particles contain polyvalent cations which give the faces of clay layers localized negative charges.<sup id="cite_ref-PMID10097044_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID10097044-203">[203]</a></sup> At the same time, the edges of the clay plates have a slight positive charge, thereby allowing the edges to adhere to the negative charges on the faces of other clay particles or to <a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">flocculate</a> (form clumps).<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a></sup> On the other hand, when monovalent ions, such as sodium, invade and displace the polyvalent cations, they weaken the positive charges on the edges, while the negative surface charges are relatively strengthened. This leaves negative charge on the clay faces that repel other clay, causing the particles to push apart, and by doing so deflocculate clay suspensions.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a></sup> As a result, the clay disperses and settles into voids between peds, causing those to close. In this way the open structure of the soil is destroyed and the soil is made impenetrable to air and water.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a></sup> Such <a href="/wiki/Sodic_soil" title="Sodic soil">sodic soil</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Haline" class="mw-redirect" title="Haline">haline</a> soil) tends to form columnar peds near the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Density">Density</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Density">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bulk_density#Soil" title="Bulk density">Bulk density § Soil</a></div>
|
||
<table class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:right">
|
||
<caption><b>Representative bulk densities of soils. The percentage pore space was calculated using 2.7 g/cm<sup>3</sup> for particle density except for the peat soil, which is estimated.</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197760_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197760-208">[208]</a></sup>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<th>Soil treatment and identification</th>
|
||
<th>Bulk density (g/cm<sup>3</sup>)</th>
|
||
<th>Pore space (%)
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th>Tilled surface soil of a cotton field
|
||
</th>
|
||
<td>1.3</td>
|
||
<td>51
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th>Trafficked inter-rows where wheels passed surface
|
||
</th>
|
||
<td>1.67</td>
|
||
<td>37
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th>Traffic pan at 25 cm deep
|
||
</th>
|
||
<td>1.7</td>
|
||
<td>36
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th>Undisturbed soil below traffic pan, clay loam
|
||
</th>
|
||
<td>1.5</td>
|
||
<td>43
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th>Rocky silt loam soil under aspen forest
|
||
</th>
|
||
<td>1.62</td>
|
||
<td>40
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th>Loamy sand surface soil
|
||
</th>
|
||
<td>1.5</td>
|
||
<td>43
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th>Decomposed peat
|
||
</th>
|
||
<td>0.55</td>
|
||
<td>65
|
||
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<p>Soil <a href="/wiki/Particle_density_(particle_count)" title="Particle density (particle count)">particle density</a> is typically 2.60 to 2.75 grams per cm<sup>3</sup> and is usually unchanging for a given soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Yu2015_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu2015-9">[9]</a></sup> Soil particle density is lower for soils with high organic matter content,<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a></sup> and is higher for soils with high iron-oxides content.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a></sup> Soil <a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">bulk density</a> is equal to the dry mass of the soil divided by the volume of the soil; i.e., it includes air space and organic materials of the soil volume. Thereby soil bulk density is always less than soil particle density and is a good indicator of soil compaction.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a></sup> The soil bulk density of cultivated loam is about 1.1 to 1.4 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (for comparison water is 1.0 g/cm<sup>3</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197759–61_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197759–61-212">[212]</a></sup> Contrary to particle density, soil bulk density is highly variable for a given soil, with a strong causal relationship with soil biological activity and management strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a></sup> However, it has been shown that, depending on species and the size of their aggregates (faeces), earthworms may either increase or decrease soil bulk density.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a></sup> A lower bulk density by itself does not indicate suitability for plant growth due to the confounding influence of soil texture and structure.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a></sup> A high bulk density is indicative of either soil compaction or a mixture of soil textural classes in which small particles fill the voids among coarser particles.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a></sup> Hence the positive correlation between the <a href="/wiki/Fractal_dimension" title="Fractal dimension">fractal dimension</a> of soil, considered as a <a href="/wiki/Porous_medium" title="Porous medium">porous medium</a>, and its bulk density,<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a></sup> that explains the poor hydraulic conductivity of silty clay loam in the absence of a faunal structure.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Porosity">Porosity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Porosity">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil" title="Pore space in soil">Pore space in soil</a></div>
|
||
<p><a href="/wiki/Pore_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Pore space">Pore space</a> is that part of the bulk volume of soil that is not occupied by either mineral or organic matter but is open space occupied by either gases or water. In a productive, medium-textured soil the total pore space is typically about 50% of the soil volume.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil#Pore_types" title="Pore space in soil">Pore size</a> varies considerably; the smallest pores (<a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil#cryptopores" title="Pore space in soil">cryptopores</a>; <0.1 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a>) hold water too tightly for use by plant roots; <a href="/wiki/Available_water_capacity" title="Available water capacity">plant-available water</a> is held in <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil#ultramicropores" title="Pore space in soil">ultramicropores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil#micropores" title="Pore space in soil">micropores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil#mesopores" title="Pore space in soil">mesopores</a> (0.1–75 <a href="/wiki/%CE%9Cm" class="mw-redirect" title="Μm">μm</a>); and <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil#macropores" title="Pore space in soil">macropores</a> (>75 <a href="/wiki/%CE%9Cm" class="mw-redirect" title="Μm">μm</a>) are generally air-filled when the soil is at <a href="/wiki/Field_capacity" title="Field capacity">field capacity</a>.
|
||
</p><p>Soil texture determines total volume of the smallest pores;<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a></sup> clay soils have smaller pores, but more total pore space than sands,<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a></sup> despite of a much lower <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">permeability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a></sup> Soil structure has a strong influence on the larger pores that affect soil aeration, water infiltration and drainage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197762–63_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197762–63-223">[223]</a></sup> Tillage has the short-term benefit of temporarily increasing the number of pores of largest size, but these can be rapidly degraded by the destruction of soil aggregation.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The pore size distribution affects the ability of plants and other organisms to access water and oxygen; large, continuous pores allow rapid transmission of air, water and dissolved nutrients through soil, and small pores store water between rainfall or irrigation events.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a></sup> Pore size variation also compartmentalizes the soil pore space such that many microbial and faunal organisms are not in direct competition with one another, which may explain not only the large number of species present, but the fact that functionally redundant organisms (organisms with the same ecological niche) can co-exist within the same soil.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Consistency">Consistency</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Consistency">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>Consistency is the ability of soil to stick to itself or to other objects (<a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(geology)" title="Cohesion (geology)">cohesion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adhesion" title="Adhesion">adhesion</a>, respectively) and its ability to resist deformation and rupture. It is of approximate use in predicting cultivation problems<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a></sup> and the engineering of foundations.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a></sup> Consistency is measured at three moisture conditions: air-dry, moist, and wet.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a></sup> In those conditions the consistency quality depends upon the clay content. In the wet state, the two qualities of stickiness and plasticity are assessed. A soil's resistance to fragmentation and crumbling is assessed in the dry state by rubbing the sample. Its resistance to shearing forces is assessed in the moist state by thumb and finger pressure. Additionally, the cemented consistency depends on cementation by substances other than clay, such as calcium carbonate, silica, oxides and salts; moisture content has little effect on its assessment. The measures of consistency border on subjective compared to other measures such as pH, since they employ the apparent feel of the soil in those states.
|
||
</p><p>The terms used to describe the soil consistency in three moisture states and a last not affected by the amount of moisture are as follows:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li>Consistency of Dry Soil: loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, extremely hard</li>
|
||
<li>Consistency of Moist Soil: loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm, extremely firm</li>
|
||
<li>Consistency of Wet Soil: nonsticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; nonplastic, slightly plastic, plastic, very plastic</li>
|
||
<li>Consistency of Cemented Soil: weakly cemented, strongly cemented, indurated (requires hammer blows to break up)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197762–63,_565–67_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197762–63,_565–67-230">[230]</a></sup></li></ol>
|
||
<p>Soil consistency is useful in estimating the ability of soil to support buildings and roads. More precise measures of soil strength are often made prior to construction.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Temperature">Temperature</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Temperature">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soil_thermal_properties" title="Soil thermal properties">Soil thermal properties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">Heat capacity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">Thermal conduction</a></div>
|
||
<p>Soil <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> depends on the ratio of the <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> absorbed to that lost.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a></sup> Soil has a temperature range between -20 to 60 °C,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> with a mean annual temperature from -10 to 26 °C according to <a href="/wiki/Biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomes">biomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a></sup> Soil temperature regulates <a href="/wiki/Seed_germination" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed germination">seed germination</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a></sup> breaking of <a href="/wiki/Seed_dormancy" title="Seed dormancy">seed dormancy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a></sup> plant and root growth<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a></sup> and the availability of <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a></sup> Soil temperature has important seasonal, monthly and daily variations, fluctuations in soil temperature being much lower with increasing soil depth.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a></sup> Heavy <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulching</a> (a type of soil cover) can slow the warming of soil in summer, and, at the same time, reduce fluctuations in surface temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Lal1974_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lal1974-239">[239]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Most often, agricultural activities must adapt to soil temperatures by:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li>maximizing germination and growth by timing of planting (also determined by <a href="/wiki/Photoperiod" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoperiod">photoperiod</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a></sup></li>
|
||
<li>optimizing use of <a href="/wiki/Anhydrous_ammonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhydrous ammonia">anhydrous ammonia</a> by applying to soil below 10 °C (50 °F)<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a></sup></li>
|
||
<li>preventing <a href="/wiki/Heaving" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaving">heaving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thawing" class="mw-redirect" title="Thawing">thawing</a> due to frosts from damaging shallow-rooted crops<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a></sup></li>
|
||
<li>preventing damage to desirable soil structure by freezing of saturated soils<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a></sup></li>
|
||
<li>improving uptake of phosphorus by plants<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a></sup></li></ol>
|
||
<p>Soil temperatures can be raised by drying soils<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a></sup> or the use of clear plastic mulches.<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a></sup> Organic mulches slow the warming of the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Lal1974_239-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lal1974-239">[239]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>There are various factors that affect soil temperature, such as water content,<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a></sup> soil color,<sup id="cite_ref-Post_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Post-248">[248]</a></sup> and relief (slope, orientation, and elevation),<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a></sup> and soil cover (shading and insulation), in addition to air temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a></sup> The color of the ground cover and its insulating properties have a strong influence on soil temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a></sup> Whiter soil tends to have a higher <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a> than blacker soil cover, which encourages whiter soils to have lower soil temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-Post_248-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Post-248">[248]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific heat">specific heat</a> of soil is the energy required to raise the temperature of soil by 1 °C. The specific heat of soil increases as water content increases, since the heat capacity of water is greater than that of dry soil.<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a></sup> The specific heat of pure water is ~ 1 calorie per gram, the specific heat of dry soil is ~ 0.2 calories per gram, hence, the specific heat of wet soil is ~ 0.2 to 1 calories per gram (0.8 to 4.2 kJ per kilogram).<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a></sup> Also, a tremendous energy (~584 cal/g or 2442 kJ/kg at 25 ℃) is required to evaporate water (known as the <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">heat of vaporization</a>). As such, wet soil usually warms more slowly than dry soil – wet surface soil is typically 3 to 6 °C colder than dry surface soil.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soil <a href="/wiki/Heat_flux" title="Heat flux">heat flux</a> refers to the rate at which <a href="/wiki/Heat_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat energy">heat energy</a> moves through the soil in response to a temperature difference between two points in the soil. The heat <a href="/wiki/Flux_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Flux density">flux density</a> is the amount of energy that flows through soil per unit area per unit time and has both magnitude and direction. For the simple case of conduction into or out of the soil in the vertical direction, which is most often applicable the heat flux density is:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q_{x}=-k{\frac {\delta T}{\delta x}}}">
|
||
<semantics>
|
||
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
|
||
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
|
||
<msub>
|
||
<mi>q</mi>
|
||
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
|
||
<mi>x</mi>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
</msub>
|
||
<mo>=</mo>
|
||
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
|
||
<mi>k</mi>
|
||
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
|
||
<mfrac>
|
||
<mrow>
|
||
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
|
||
<mi>T</mi>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
<mrow>
|
||
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
|
||
<mi>x</mi>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
</mfrac>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
</mstyle>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q_{x}=-k{\frac {\delta T}{\delta x}}}</annotation>
|
||
</semantics>
|
||
</math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dc09ed19644d8d29e5975251e0933d640c2f6147" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:11.848ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="q_{x}=-k{\frac {\delta T}{\delta x}}"/></span></dd></dl>
|
||
<p>In <a href="/wiki/SI" class="mw-redirect" title="SI">SI</a> units
|
||
</p>
|
||
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q}">
|
||
<semantics>
|
||
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
|
||
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
|
||
<mi>q</mi>
|
||
</mstyle>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q}</annotation>
|
||
</semantics>
|
||
</math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.07ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="q"/></span> is the heat flux density, in SI the units are <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">W</a>·m<sup>−2</sup></dd>
|
||
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}">
|
||
<semantics>
|
||
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
|
||
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
|
||
<mi>k</mi>
|
||
</mstyle>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation>
|
||
</semantics>
|
||
</math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="k"/></span> is the soils' <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" title="Thermal conductivity">conductivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">W</a>·m<sup>−1</sup>·<a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a><sup>−1</sup>. The thermal conductivity is sometimes a constant, otherwise an average value of conductivity for the soil condition between the surface and the point at depth is used.</dd>
|
||
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta T}">
|
||
<semantics>
|
||
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
|
||
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
|
||
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
|
||
<mi>T</mi>
|
||
</mstyle>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta T}</annotation>
|
||
</semantics>
|
||
</math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/92b962f8dffd4f58b2914cdb609c6fffd295a164" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.685ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="\delta T"/></span> is the temperature difference (<a href="/wiki/Temperature_gradient" title="Temperature gradient">temperature gradient</a>) between the two points in the soil between which the heat flux density is to be calculated. In SI the units are kelvin, <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>.</dd>
|
||
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta x}">
|
||
<semantics>
|
||
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
|
||
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
|
||
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
|
||
<mi>x</mi>
|
||
</mstyle>
|
||
</mrow>
|
||
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta x}</annotation>
|
||
</semantics>
|
||
</math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d22318bef6d7358b79bd993321d65d7c1d3db9d4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.378ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="\delta x"/></span> is the distance between the two points within the soil, at which the temperatures are measured and between which the heat flux density is being calculated. In SI the units are meters <a href="/wiki/Meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Meter">m</a>, and where x is measured positive downward.</dd></dl>
|
||
<p>Heat flux is in the direction opposite the temperature gradient, hence the minus sign. That is to say, if the temperature of the surface is higher than at depth x the negative sign will result in a positive value for the heat flux q, and which is interpreted as the heat being conducted into the soil.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<table class="wikitable">
|
||
<caption><sup id="cite_ref-Brady_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brady-55">[55]</a></sup>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<th>Component</th>
|
||
<th>Thermal Conductivity (W·m‐1·K‐1)
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Quartz</td>
|
||
<td>8.8
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Clay</td>
|
||
<td>2.9
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Organic matter</td>
|
||
<td>0.25
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Water</td>
|
||
<td>0.57
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Ice</td>
|
||
<td>2.4
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Air</td>
|
||
<td>0.025
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Dry soil</td>
|
||
<td>0.2‐0.4
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Wet soil</td>
|
||
<td>1–3
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
</tbody></table>
|
||
<p>Soil temperature is important for the survival and early growth of <a href="/wiki/Seedling" title="Seedling">seedlings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a></sup> Soil temperatures affect the anatomical and morphological character of root systems.<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a></sup> All physical, chemical, and biological processes in soil and roots are affected in particular because of the increased viscosities of water and <a href="/wiki/Protoplasm" title="Protoplasm">protoplasm</a> at low temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a></sup> In general, climates that do not preclude survival and growth of <a href="/wiki/White_spruce" title="White spruce">white spruce</a> above ground are sufficiently benign to provide soil temperatures able to maintain white spruce root systems. In some northwestern parts of the range, white spruce occurs on <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> sites<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a></sup> and although young unlignified roots of <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" title="Pinophyta">conifers</a> may have little resistance to freezing,<sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a></sup> the root system of containerized white spruce was not affected by exposure to a temperature of 5 to 20 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Optimum temperatures for tree root growth range between 10 °C and 25 °C in general<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a></sup> and for spruce in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-Landhäusser_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landhäusser-262">[262]</a></sup> In 2-week-old white spruce seedlings that were then grown for 6 weeks in soil at temperatures of 15 °C, 19 °C, 23 °C, 27 °C, and 31 °C; shoot height, shoot dry weight, stem diameter, root penetration, root volume, and root dry weight all reached maxima at 19 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>However, whereas strong positive relationships between soil temperature (5 °C to 25 °C) and growth have been found in <a href="/wiki/Populus_tremuloides" title="Populus tremuloides">trembling aspen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Populus_balsamifera" title="Populus balsamifera">balsam poplar</a>, white and other spruce species have shown little or no changes in growth with increasing soil temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Landhäusser_262-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landhäusser-262">[262]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a></sup> Such insensitivity to soil low temperature may be common among a number of western and boreal conifers.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soil temperatures are increasing worldwide under the influence of present-day global <a href="/wiki/Climate_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate warming">climate warming</a>, with opposing views about expected effects on <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feedback_loops" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback loops">feedback loops</a> to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change">climate change</a><sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a></sup> Most threats are about <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> thawing and attended effects on carbon destocking<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a></sup> and ecosystem collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Color">Color</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Color">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_color" title="Soil color">Soil color</a></div>
|
||
<p>Soil colour is often the first impression one has when viewing soil. Striking colours and contrasting patterns are especially noticeable. The <a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red River of the South</a> carries sediment eroded from extensive reddish soils like <a href="/wiki/Port_Silt_Loam" title="Port Silt Loam">Port Silt Loam</a> in Oklahoma. The <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> in China carries yellow sediment from eroding loess soils. <a href="/wiki/Mollisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollisols">Mollisols</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> of North America are darkened and enriched by organic matter. <a href="/wiki/Podsol" class="mw-redirect" title="Podsol">Podsols</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">boreal forests</a> have highly contrasting layers due to acidity and leaching.
|
||
</p><p>In general, color is determined by the organic matter content, drainage conditions, and degree of oxidation. Soil color, while easily discerned, has little use in predicting soil characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197771_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197771-272">[272]</a></sup> It is of use in distinguishing boundaries of <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">horizons</a> within a soil profile,<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a></sup> determining the origin of a soil's <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent material</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a></sup> as an indication of wetness and <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogged</a> conditions,<sup id="cite_ref-Blavet_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blavet-275">[275]</a></sup> and as a qualitative means of measuring organic,<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a></sup> iron oxide<sup id="cite_ref-Barrón_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrón-277">[277]</a></sup> and clay contents of soils.<sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a></sup> Color is recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Munsell_color_system" title="Munsell color system">Munsell color system</a> as for instance 10YR3/4 <i>Dusky Red</i>, with 10YR as <i><a href="/wiki/Hue" title="Hue">hue</a></i>, 3 as <i><a href="/wiki/Lightness" title="Lightness">value</a></i> and 4 as <i><a href="/wiki/Colorfulness" title="Colorfulness">chroma</a></i>. Munsell color dimensions (hue, value and chroma) can be averaged among samples and treated as quantitative parameters, displaying significant correlations with various soil<sup id="cite_ref-279" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a></sup> and vegetation properties.<sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soil color is primarily influenced by soil mineralogy. Many soil colours are due to various iron minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-Barrón_277-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrón-277">[277]</a></sup> The development and distribution of colour in a soil profile result from chemical and biological weathering, especially <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-Blavet_275-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blavet-275">[275]</a></sup> As the primary minerals in soil parent material weather, the elements combine into new and colourful <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a>. Iron forms secondary minerals of a yellow or red colour,<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a></sup> organic matter decomposes into black and brown <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humic</a> compounds,<sup id="cite_ref-282" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a><sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a><sup id="cite_ref-284" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a></sup> can form black mineral deposits. These pigments can produce various colour patterns within a soil. <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Aerobic</a> conditions produce uniform or gradual colour changes, while <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">reducing environments</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anaerobic" class="extiw" title="wikt:anaerobic">anaerobic</a>) result in rapid colour flow with complex, mottled patterns and points of colour concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Resistivity">Resistivity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Resistivity">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_resistivity" title="Soil resistivity">Soil resistivity</a></div>
|
||
<p>Soil resistivity is a measure of a soil's ability to retard the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction">conduction</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a>. The electrical <a href="/wiki/Resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistivity">resistivity</a> of soil can affect the rate of <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_corrosion" title="Galvanic corrosion">galvanic corrosion</a> of metallic structures in contact with the soil.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Higher moisture content or increased <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> concentration can lower resistivity and increase conductivity, thereby increasing the rate of corrosion.<sup id="cite_ref-286" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-287" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a></sup> Soil resistivity values typically range from about 1 to 100000 <a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">Ω</a>·m, extreme values being for saline soils and dry soils overlaying cristalline rocks, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-288" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Water">Water</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Water">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">Water content</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_potential" title="Water potential">Water potential</a></div>
|
||
<p><span id="Moisture"></span><b>Soil moisture</b> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">water content</a> of the soil. It can be expressed in terms of volumes or weights. <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil moisture measurement">Soil moisture measurement</a> can be based on <i>in situ</i> probes or <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> methods.
|
||
</p><p>Water that enters a field is removed from a field by <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-289" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a></sup> Runoff is the water that flows on the surface to the edge of the field; drainage is the water that flows through the soil downward or toward the edge of the field underground; evaporative water loss from a field is that part of the water that evaporates into the atmosphere directly from the field's surface; transpiration is the loss of water from the field by its evaporation from the plant itself.
|
||
</p><p>Water affects <a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil formation">soil formation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">structure</a>, stability and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> but is of primary concern with respect to plant growth.<sup id="cite_ref-290" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a></sup> Water is essential to plants for four reasons:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li>It constitutes 80%-95% of the plant's <a href="/wiki/Protoplasm" title="Protoplasm">protoplasm</a>.</li>
|
||
<li>It is essential for <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>.</li>
|
||
<li>It is the solvent in which <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> are carried to, into and throughout the plant.</li>
|
||
<li>It provides the <a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">turgidity</a> by which the plant keeps itself in proper position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197772_291-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197772-291">[291]</a></sup></li></ol>
|
||
<p>In addition, water alters the soil profile by dissolving and re-depositing minerals, often at lower levels.<sup id="cite_ref-292" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a></sup> In a loam soil, solids constitute half the volume, gas one-quarter of the volume, and water one-quarter of the volume<sup id="cite_ref-McClellan2017_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClellan2017-33">[33]</a></sup> of which only half will be available to most plants, with a strong variation according to <a href="/wiki/Matric_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Matric potential">matric potential</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-293" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>A flooded field will drain the gravitational water under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> until water's adhesive and cohesive forces resist further drainage at which point it is said to have reached <a href="/wiki/Field_capacity" title="Field capacity">field capacity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748_294-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748-294">[294]</a></sup> At that point, plants must apply <a href="/wiki/Suction" title="Suction">suction</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748_294-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748-294">[294]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195750_295-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195750-295">[295]</a></sup> to draw water from a soil. The water that plants may draw from the soil is called the <a href="/wiki/Available_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Available water">available water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748_294-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748-294">[294]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195756_296-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195756-296">[296]</a></sup> Once the available water is used up the remaining moisture is called unavailable water as the plant cannot produce sufficient suction to draw that water in. At 15 bar suction, <a href="/wiki/Wilting_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilting point">wilting point</a>, seeds will not germinate,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195739_297-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195739-297">[297]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748_294-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748-294">[294]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195752_298-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195752-298">[298]</a></sup> plants begin to wilt and then die. Water moves in soil under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capillarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillarity">capillarity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-299" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a></sup> When water enters the soil, it displaces air from interconnected <a href="/wiki/Macropores" class="mw-redirect" title="Macropores">macropores</a> by <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, and breaks aggregates into which air is entrapped, a process called <a href="/wiki/Slaking_(geology)" title="Slaking (geology)">slaking</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-300" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The rate at which a soil can absorb water depends on the soil and its other conditions. As a plant grows, its roots remove water from the largest pores (<a href="/wiki/Macropores" class="mw-redirect" title="Macropores">macropores</a>) first. Soon the larger pores hold only air, and the remaining water is found only in the intermediate- and smallest-sized pores (<a href="/wiki/Micropores" class="mw-redirect" title="Micropores">micropores</a>). The water in the smallest pores is so strongly held to particle surfaces that plant roots cannot pull it away. Consequently, not all soil water is available to plants, with a strong dependence on <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">texture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Easton_301-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Easton-301">[301]</a></sup> When saturated, the soil may lose nutrients as the water drains.<sup id="cite_ref-302" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a></sup> Water moves in a draining field under the influence of pressure where the soil is locally saturated and by capillarity pull to drier parts of the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-303" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a></sup> Most plant water needs are supplied from the suction caused by evaporation from plant leaves (<a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>) and a lower fraction is supplied by suction created by <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a> differences between the plant interior and the soil solution.<sup id="cite_ref-304" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-305" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a></sup> Plant roots must seek out water and grow preferentially in moister soil microsites,<sup id="cite_ref-306" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a></sup> but some parts of the root system are also able to remoisten dry parts of the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a></sup> Insufficient water will damage the yield of a crop.<sup id="cite_ref-308" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a></sup> Most of the available water is used in transpiration to pull nutrients into the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-309" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soil water is also important for climate modeling and numerical weather prediction. <a href="/wiki/Global_Climate_Observing_System" title="Global Climate Observing System">Global Climate Observing System</a> specified soil water as one of the 50 Essential Climate Variables (ECVs).<sup id="cite_ref-310" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a></sup> Soil water can be measured in situ with <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture_sensor" title="Soil moisture sensor">soil moisture sensor</a> or can be estimated from satellite data and hydrological models. Each method exhibits pros and cons, and hence, the integration of different techniques may decrease the drawbacks of a single given method.<sup id="cite_ref-311" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Water_retention">Water retention</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Water retention">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soil_water_(retention)" title="Soil water (retention)">Soil water (retention)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_retention_curve" title="Water retention curve">Water retention curve</a></div>
|
||
<p>Water is retained in a soil when the <a href="/wiki/Adhesive_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Adhesive force">adhesive force</a> of attraction that water's <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> atoms have for the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> of soil particles is stronger than the cohesive forces that water's hydrogen feels for other water oxygen atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197772–74_312-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197772–74-312">[312]</a></sup> When a field is flooded, the soil <a href="/wiki/Pore_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Pore space">pore space</a> is completely filled by water. The field will drain under the force of gravity until it reaches what is called <a href="/wiki/Field_capacity" title="Field capacity">field capacity</a>, at which point the smallest pores are filled with water and the largest with water and gases.<sup id="cite_ref-313" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a></sup> The total amount of water held when field capacity is reached is a function of the <a href="/wiki/Specific_surface_area" title="Specific surface area">specific surface area</a> of the soil particles.<sup id="cite_ref-314" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a></sup> As a result, high clay and high organic soils have higher field capacities.<sup id="cite_ref-Gupta1979_315-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gupta1979-315">[315]</a></sup> The potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water in reference conditions is called <a href="/wiki/Water_potential" title="Water potential">water potential</a>. Total water potential is a sum of matric potential which results from <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a>, osmotic potential for saline soil, and gravitational potential when dealing with vertical direction of water movement. Water potential in soil usually has negative values, and therefore it is also expressed in <a href="/wiki/Suction" title="Suction">suction</a>, which is defined as the minus of water potential. Suction has a positive value and can be regarded as the total force required to pull or push water out of soil. Water potential or suction is expressed in units of kPa (10<sup>3</sup> <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascal</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">bar</a> (100 kPa), or <a href="/wiki/Centimetre_of_water" title="Centimetre of water">cm H<sub>2</sub>O</a> (approximately 0.098 kPa). <a href="/wiki/Common_logarithm" title="Common logarithm">Common logarithm</a> of suction in cm H<sub>2</sub>O is called pF.<sup id="cite_ref-316" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a></sup> Therefore, pF 3 = 1000 cm = 98 kPa = 0.98 bar.
|
||
</p><p>The forces with which water is held in soils determine its availability to plants. Forces of <a href="/wiki/Adhesion" title="Adhesion">adhesion</a> hold water strongly to mineral and humus surfaces and less strongly to itself by cohesive forces. A plant's root may penetrate a very small volume of water that is adhering to soil and be initially able to draw in water that is only lightly held by the cohesive forces. But as the droplet is drawn down, the forces of adhesion of the water for the soil particles produce increasingly higher <a href="/wiki/Suction" title="Suction">suction</a>, finally up to 1500 kPa (pF = 4.2).<sup id="cite_ref-317" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a></sup> At 1500 kPa suction, the soil water amount is called <a href="/wiki/Wilting_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilting point">wilting point</a>. At that suction the plant cannot sustain its water needs as water is still being lost from the plant by transpiration, the plant's turgidity is lost, and it wilts, although <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomatal</a> closure may decrease transpiration and thus may retard wilting below the <a href="/wiki/Wilting_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilting point">wilting point</a>, in particular under <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acclimatization" title="Acclimatization">acclimatization</a> to drought.<sup id="cite_ref-318" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a></sup> The next level, called air-dry, occurs at 100,000 kPa suction (pF = 6). Finally the oven dry condition is reached at 1,000,000 kPa suction (pF = 7). All water below wilting point is called unavailable water.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197775–76_319-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197775–76-319">[319]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>When the soil moisture content is optimal for plant growth, the water in the large and intermediate size pores can move about in the soil and be easily used by plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Easton_301-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Easton-301">[301]</a></sup> The amount of water remaining in a soil drained to field capacity and the amount that is available are functions of the soil type. Sandy soil will retain very little water, while clay will hold the maximum amount.<sup id="cite_ref-Gupta1979_315-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gupta1979-315">[315]</a></sup> The available water for the silt loam might be 20% whereas for the sand it might be only 6% by volume, as shown in this table.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<table class="wikitable" style="border-spacing: 5px; margin:auto;">
|
||
<caption><b>Wilting point, field capacity, and available water of various soil textures (unit: % by volume)</b><sup id="cite_ref-320" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a></sup>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Soil Texture
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Wilting Point
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Field Capacity
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Available water
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Sand</td>
|
||
<td>3.3</td>
|
||
<td>9.1</td>
|
||
<td>5.8
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Sandy loam</td>
|
||
<td>9.5</td>
|
||
<td>20.7</td>
|
||
<td>11.2
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Loam</td>
|
||
<td>11.7</td>
|
||
<td>27.0</td>
|
||
<td>15.3
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Silt loam</td>
|
||
<td>13.3</td>
|
||
<td>33.0</td>
|
||
<td>19.7
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Clay loam</td>
|
||
<td>19.7</td>
|
||
<td>31.8</td>
|
||
<td>12.1
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Clay</td>
|
||
<td>27.2</td>
|
||
<td>39.6</td>
|
||
<td>12.4
|
||
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<p>The above are average values for the soil textures.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Water_flow">Water flow</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Water flow">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>Water moves through soil due to the force of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capillarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillarity">capillarity</a>. At zero to 33 kPa <a href="/wiki/Suction" title="Suction">suction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Field_capacity" title="Field capacity">field capacity</a>), water is pushed through soil from the point of its application under the force of gravity and the pressure gradient created by the pressure of the water; this is called saturated flow. At higher suction, water movement is pulled by capillarity from wetter toward drier soil. This is caused by water's <a href="/wiki/Adhesion" title="Adhesion">adhesion</a> to soil solids, and is called unsaturated flow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197785_321-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197785-321">[321]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-322" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Water infiltration and movement in soil is controlled by six factors:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li>Soil texture</li>
|
||
<li>Soil structure. Fine-textured soils with granular structure are most favourable to infiltration of water.</li>
|
||
<li>The amount of organic matter. Coarse matter is best and if on the surface helps prevent the destruction of soil structure and the creation of crusts.</li>
|
||
<li>Depth of soil to impervious layers such as hardpans or bedrock</li>
|
||
<li>The amount of water already in the soil</li>
|
||
<li>Soil temperature. Warm soils take in water faster while frozen soils may not be able to absorb depending on the type of freezing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197786_323-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197786-323">[323]</a></sup></li></ol>
|
||
<p>Water infiltration rates range from 0.25 cm per hour for high clay soils to 2.5 cm per hour for sand and well stabilized and aggregated soil structures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197788_324-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197788-324">[324]</a></sup> Water flows through the ground unevenly, in the form of so-called "gravity fingers", because of the <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> between water particles.<sup id="cite_ref-325" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-326" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Tree roots, whether living or dead, create preferential channels for rainwater flow through soil,<sup id="cite_ref-327" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a></sup> magnifying infiltration rates of water up to 27 times.<sup id="cite_ref-328" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Flooding" class="mw-redirect" title="Flooding">Flooding</a> temporarily increases <a href="/wiki/Soil_permeability" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil permeability">soil permeability</a> in <a href="/wiki/River_beds" class="mw-redirect" title="River beds">river beds</a>, helping to <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a> <a href="/wiki/Aquifers" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquifers">aquifers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-329" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Water applied to a soil is pushed by <a href="/wiki/Pressure_gradients" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure gradients">pressure gradients</a> from the point of its application where it is <a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">saturated</a> locally, to less saturated areas, such as the <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">vadose zone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-330" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-331" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a></sup> Once soil is completely wetted, any more water will move downward, or <a href="/wiki/Percolate" class="mw-redirect" title="Percolate">percolate</a> out of the range of <a href="/wiki/Plant_roots" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant roots">plant roots</a>, carrying with it clay, humus, nutrients, primarily cations, and various <a href="/wiki/Contaminants" class="mw-redirect" title="Contaminants">contaminants</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollutants">pollutants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">viruses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, potentially causing <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwater contamination">groundwater contamination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-332" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-333" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a></sup> In order of decreasing solubility, the leached nutrients are:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ul><li>Calcium</li>
|
||
<li>Magnesium, Sulfur, Potassium; depending upon soil composition</li>
|
||
<li>Nitrogen; usually little, unless nitrate fertiliser was applied recently</li>
|
||
<li>Phosphorus; very little as its forms in soil are of low solubility.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197790_334-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197790-334">[334]</a></sup></li></ul>
|
||
<p>In the United States percolation water due to rainfall ranges from almost zero centimeters just east of the Rocky Mountains to fifty or more centimeters per day in the Appalachian Mountains and the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197780_335-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197780-335">[335]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Water is pulled by <a href="/wiki/Capillary" title="Capillary">capillary</a> action due to the <a href="/wiki/Adhesion" title="Adhesion">adhesion</a> force of water to the soil solids, producing a <a href="/wiki/Suction" title="Suction">suction</a> <a href="/wiki/Gradient" title="Gradient">gradient</a> from wet towards drier soil<sup id="cite_ref-336" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a></sup> and from <a href="/wiki/Macropores" class="mw-redirect" title="Macropores">macropores</a> to <a href="/wiki/Micropores" class="mw-redirect" title="Micropores">micropores</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Richards_equation" title="Richards equation">Richards equation</a> represents the movement of water in <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">unsaturated</a> soils.<sup id="cite_ref-337" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a></sup> The analysis of unsaturated water flow and solute transport is available by using a readily available software such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrus_(software)" title="Hydrus (software)">Hydrus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-338" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a></sup> by giving soil hydraulic parameters of hydraulic functions (<a href="/wiki/Water_retention_curve" title="Water retention curve">water retention function</a> and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function) and initial and boundary conditions. Preferential flow occurs along interconnected macropores, crevices, root and worm channels, which <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drain</a> water under <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-339" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-340" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a></sup>
|
||
Many models based on soil physics now allow for some representation of preferential flow as a dual continuum, dual porosity or dual permeability options, but these have generally been "bolted on" to the Richards solution without any rigorous physical underpinning.<sup id="cite_ref-341" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Water_uptake_by_plants">Water uptake by plants</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Water uptake by plants">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>Of equal importance to the storage and movement of water in soil is the means by which plants acquire it and their nutrients. Most soil water is taken up by plants as passive <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(chemistry)" title="Absorption (chemistry)">absorption</a> caused by the pulling force of water evaporating (<a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiring</a>) from the long column of water (<a href="/wiki/Xylem_sap" class="mw-redirect" title="Xylem sap">xylem sap</a> flow) that leads from the plant's roots to its leaves, according to the <a href="/wiki/Cohesion-tension_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohesion-tension theory">cohesion-tension theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-342" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a></sup> The upward movement of water and solutes (<a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_redistribution" title="Hydraulic redistribution">hydraulic lift</a>) is regulated in the roots by the <a href="/wiki/Endodermis" title="Endodermis">endodermis</a><sup id="cite_ref-343" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a></sup> and in the plant foliage by <a href="/wiki/Stomatal_conductance" title="Stomatal conductance">stomatal conductance</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-344" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a></sup> and can be interrupted in root and shoot <a href="/wiki/Xylem_vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="Xylem vessels">xylem vessels</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cavitation" title="Cavitation">cavitation</a>, also called <i>xylem embolism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-345" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a></sup> In addition, the high concentration of salts within plant roots creates an <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a> gradient that pushes soil water into the roots.<sup id="cite_ref-346" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a></sup> Osmotic absorption becomes more important during times of low water transpiration caused by lower temperatures (for example at night) or high humidity, and the reverse occurs under high temperature or low humidity. It is these process that cause <a href="/wiki/Guttation" title="Guttation">guttation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilting" title="Wilting">wilting</a>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197792_347-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197792-347">[347]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-348" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Root extension is vital for plant survival. A study of a single winter rye plant grown for four months in one cubic foot (0.0283 cubic meters) of loam soil showed that the plant developed 13,800,000 roots, a total of 620 km in length with 237 square meters in surface area; and 14 billion hair roots of 10,620 km total length and 400 square meters total area; for a total surface area of 638 square meters. The total surface area of the loam soil was estimated to be 52,000 square meters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195746_349-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195746-349">[349]</a></sup> In other words, the roots were in contact with only 1.2% of the soil. However, root extension should be viewed as a dynamic process, allowing new roots to explore a new volume of soil each day, increasing dramatically the total volume of soil explored over a given growth period, and thus the volume of water taken up by the root system over this period.<sup id="cite_ref-350" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a></sup> Root architecture, i.e. the spatial configuration of the root system, plays a prominent role in the adaptation of plants to soil water and nutrient availabiity, and thus in plant productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-351" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Roots must seek out water as the unsaturated flow of water in soil can move only at a rate of up to 2.5 cm per day; as a result they are constantly dying and growing as they seek out high concentrations of soil moisture.<sup id="cite_ref-352" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a></sup> Insufficient soil moisture, to the point of causing <a href="/wiki/Wilting" title="Wilting">wilting</a>, will cause permanent damage and <a href="/wiki/Crop_yield" title="Crop yield">crop yields</a> will suffer. When grain <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a> was exposed to soil suction as low as 1300 kPa during the seed head emergence through bloom and seed set stages of growth, its production was reduced by 34%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197794_353-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197794-353">[353]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Consumptive_use_and_water_use_efficiency">Consumptive use and water use efficiency</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Consumptive use and water use efficiency">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>Only a small fraction (0.1% to 1%) of the water used by a plant is held within the plant. The majority is ultimately lost via <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> from the soil surface is also substantial, the transpiration:evaporation ratio varying according to vegetation type and climate, peaking in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforests" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical rainforests">tropical rainforests</a> and dipping in <a href="/wiki/Steppes" class="mw-redirect" title="Steppes">steppes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deserts" class="mw-redirect" title="Deserts">deserts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-354" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a></sup> Transpiration plus evaporative soil moisture loss is called <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>. Evapotranspiration plus water held in the plant totals to consumptive use, which is nearly identical to evapotranspiration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197794_353-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197794-353">[353]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-355" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>The total water used in an agricultural field includes <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> and consumptive use. The use of loose <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulches</a> will reduce evaporative losses for a period after a field is irrigated, but in the end the total evaporative loss (plant plus soil) will approach that of an uncovered soil, while more water is immediately available for plant growth.<sup id="cite_ref-356" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Water_use_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Water use efficiency">Water use efficiency</a> is measured by the <a href="/wiki/Transpiration_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpiration ratio">transpiration ratio</a>, which is the ratio of the total water transpired by a plant to the dry weight of the harvested plant. Transpiration ratios for crops range from 300 to 700. For example, alfalfa may have a transpiration ratio of 500 and as a result 500 kilograms of water will produce one kilogram of dry alfalfa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197797–99_357-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197797–99-357">[357]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
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||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Atmosphere">Atmosphere</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Atmosphere">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>The atmosphere of soil, or <a href="/wiki/Soil_gas" title="Soil gas">soil gas</a>, is very different from the atmosphere above. The consumption of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> by microbes and plant roots, and their release of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, decrease oxygen and increase carbon dioxide concentration. Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration is 0.04%, but in the soil <a href="/wiki/Pore_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Pore space">pore space</a> it may range from 10 to 100 times that level, thus potentially contributing to the inhibition of root respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-358" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a></sup> Calcareous soils regulate CO<sub>2</sub> concentration by <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> <a href="/wiki/Buffering_agent" title="Buffering agent">buffering</a>, contrary to acid soils in which all CO<sub>2</sub> respired accumulates in the soil pore system.<sup id="cite_ref-359" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a></sup> At extreme levels CO<sub>2</sub> is toxic.<sup id="cite_ref-360" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a></sup> This suggests a possible <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</a> control of soil CO<sub>2</sub> concentration through its inhibitory effects on root and microbial respiration (also called '<a href="/wiki/Soil_respiration" title="Soil respiration">soil respiration</a>').<sup id="cite_ref-361" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a></sup> In addition, the soil voids are saturated with water vapour, at least until the point of maximal <a href="/wiki/Hygroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygroscopic">hygroscopicity</a>, beyond which a <a href="/wiki/Vapour-pressure_deficit" title="Vapour-pressure deficit">vapour-pressure deficit</a> occurs in the soil pore space.<sup id="cite_ref-Vannier1987_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vannier1987-35">[35]</a></sup> Adequate porosity is necessary, not just to allow the penetration of water, but also to allow gases to diffuse in and out. Movement of gases is by diffusion from high concentrations to lower, the <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_coefficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion coefficient">diffusion coefficient</a> decreasing with <a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">soil compaction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-362" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a></sup> Oxygen from above atmosphere diffuses in the soil where it is consumed and levels of carbon dioxide in excess of above atmosphere diffuse out with other gases (including <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a>) as well as water.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith2003_363-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2003-363">[363]</a></sup> Soil texture and structure strongly affect soil porosity and gas diffusion. It is the total <a href="/wiki/Pore_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Pore space">pore space</a> (<a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a>) of soil, not the pore size, and the degree of pore interconnection (or conversely pore sealing), together with water content, air <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a> and temperature, that determine the rate of diffusion of gases into and out of soil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195735–36_364-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195735–36-364">[364]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith2003_363-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2003-363">[363]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ped#Platy" title="Ped">Platy</a> <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">soil structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">soil compaction</a> (low porosity) impede gas flow, and a deficiency of oxygen may encourage anaerobic bacteria to reduce (strip oxygen) from nitrate NO<sub>3</sub> to the gases N<sub>2</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>O, and NO, which are then lost to the atmosphere, thereby depleting the soil of nitrogen.<sup id="cite_ref-365" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a></sup> Aerated soil is also a net sink of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> CH<sub>4</sub><sup id="cite_ref-366" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a></sup> but a net producer of methane (a strong heat-absorbing greenhouse gas) when soils are depleted of oxygen and subject to elevated temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-367" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-367">[367]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Soil atmosphere is also the seat of emissions of <a href="/wiki/Volatiles" title="Volatiles">volatiles</a> other than carbon and nitrogen oxides from various soil organisms, e.g. roots,<sup id="cite_ref-368" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a></sup> bacteria,<sup id="cite_ref-369" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a></sup> fungi,<sup id="cite_ref-370" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a></sup> animals.<sup id="cite_ref-371" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a></sup> These volatiles are used as chemical cues, making soil atmosphere the seat of interaction networks<sup id="cite_ref-372" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-373" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a></sup> playing a decisive role in the stability, dynamics and evolution of soil ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-374" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a></sup> Biogenic soil volatile organic compounds are exchanged with the aboveground atmosphere, in which they are just 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than those from aboveground vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-375" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a></sup>
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</p><p>We humans can get some idea of the soil atmosphere through the well-known 'after-the-rain' scent, when infiltering rainwater flushes out the whole soil atmosphere after a drought period, or when soil is excavated,<sup id="cite_ref-376" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a></sup> a bulk property attributed in a <a href="/wiki/Reductionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductionist">reductionist</a> manner to particular biochemical compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Petrichor" title="Petrichor">petrichor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Geosmin" title="Geosmin">geosmin</a>.
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</p>
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<h2><span id="Composition_of_the_solid_phase_.28soil_matrix.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Composition_of_the_solid_phase_(soil_matrix)">Composition of the solid phase (soil matrix)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Composition of the solid phase (soil matrix)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>Soil particles can be classified by their chemical composition (<a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>) as well as their size. The particle size distribution of a soil, its <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">texture</a>, determines many of the properties of that soil, in particular <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">hydraulic conductivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_potential" title="Water potential">water potential</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-377" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a></sup> but the mineralogy of those particles can strongly modify those properties. The mineralogy of the finest soil particles, clay, is especially important.<sup id="cite_ref-378" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span id="Gravel.2C_sand_and_silt"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Gravel,_sand_and_silt">Gravel, sand and silt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Gravel, sand and silt">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a> are the larger <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture#Soil_separates" title="Soil texture">soil particles</a>, and their mineralogy is often inherited from the <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent material</a> of the soil, but may include products of <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Concretions" class="mw-redirect" title="Concretions">concretions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxide</a>), or residues of plant and animal life (such as silica <a href="/wiki/Phytoliths" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytoliths">phytoliths</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Russell1973_379-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell1973-379">[379]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-380" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-380">[380]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">Quartz</a> is the most common mineral in the sand or silt fraction as it is resistant to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weathering">chemical weathering</a>, except under hot climate;<sup id="cite_ref-381" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a></sup> other common minerals are <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micas" class="mw-redirect" title="Micas">micas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferromagnesian">ferromagnesian</a> minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Pyroxenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyroxenes">pyroxenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphiboles" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphiboles">amphiboles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olivines" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivines">olivines</a>, which are dissolved or transformed in clay under the combined influence of physico-chemical and biological processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell1973_379-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell1973-379">[379]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-382" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span id="Mineral_colloids.3B_soil_clays"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mineral_colloids;_soil_clays">Mineral colloids; soil clays</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mineral colloids; soil clays">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Clay_minerals" title="Clay minerals">Clay minerals</a></div>
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<p>Due to its high <a href="/wiki/Specific_surface_area" title="Specific surface area">specific surface area</a> and its unbalanced negative <a href="/wiki/Electric_charges" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric charges">electric charges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> is the most active mineral component of soil.<sup id="cite_ref-383" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-384" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a></sup> It is a colloidal and most often a crystalline material.<sup id="cite_ref-385" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a></sup> In soils, clay is a soil textural class and is defined in a physical sense as any mineral particle less than 2 μm (8<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>−5</sup> in) in effective diameter. Many soil minerals, such as gypsum, carbonates, or quartz, are small enough to be classified as clay based on their physical size, but chemically they do not afford the same utility as do mineralogically-defined <a href="/wiki/Clay_minerals" title="Clay minerals">clay minerals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-386" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a></sup> Chemically, clay minerals are a range of <a href="/wiki/Phyllosilicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phyllosilicate">phyllosilicate</a> minerals with certain reactive properties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977101–02_387-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977101–02-387">[387]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Before the advent of <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> clay was thought to be very small particles of <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hornblende" title="Hornblende">hornblende</a> or <a href="/wiki/Augite" title="Augite">augite</a>, but it is now known to be (with the exception of mica-based clays) a precipitate with a mineralogical composition that is dependent on but different from its parent materials and is classed as a secondary mineral.<sup id="cite_ref-388" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-388">[388]</a></sup> The type of clay that is formed is a function of the parent material and the composition of the minerals in solution.<sup id="cite_ref-389" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-389">[389]</a></sup> Clay minerals continue to be formed as long as the soil exists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimonson195719_390-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonson195719-390">[390]</a></sup> Mica-based clays result from a modification of the primary mica mineral in such a way that it behaves and is classed as a clay.<sup id="cite_ref-391" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-391">[391]</a></sup> Most clays are crystalline, but some clays or some parts of clay minerals are amorphous.<sup id="cite_ref-392" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-392">[392]</a></sup> The clays of a soil are a mixture of the various types of clay, but one type predominates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977102_393-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977102-393">[393]</a></sup>
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</p><p>Typically there are four main groups of clay minerals: <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a>-<a href="/wiki/Smectite" class="mw-redirect" title="Smectite">smectite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illite" title="Illite">illite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chlorite" title="Chlorite">chlorite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-394" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-394">[394]</a></sup> Most clays are crystalline and most are made up of three or four planes of oxygen held together by planes of aluminium and silicon by way of ionic bonds that together form a single layer of clay. The spatial arrangement of the oxygen atoms determines clay's structure.<sup id="cite_ref-395" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-395">[395]</a></sup> Half of the weight of clay is oxygen, but on a volume basis oxygen is ninety percent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195733_396-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195733-396">[396]</a></sup> The layers of clay are sometimes held together through <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonds">hydrogen bonds</a>, sodium or potassium bridges and as a result will swell less in the presence of water.<sup id="cite_ref-397" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-397">[397]</a></sup> Clays such as <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a> have layers that are loosely attached and will swell greatly when water intervenes between the layers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977102–07_398-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977102–07-398">[398]</a></sup>
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</p><p>In a wider sense clays can be classified as:
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</p>
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<ol><li>Layer Crystalline <b>alumino-silica clays</b>: <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illite" title="Illite">illite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vermiculite" title="Vermiculite">vermiculite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorite_group" title="Chlorite group">chlorite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a>.</li>
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<li>Crystalline Chain <b>carbonate and sulfate minerals</b>: <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> (CaCO<sub>3</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomite</a> (CaMg(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> (CaSO<sub>4</sub>·2H2O).</li>
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<li><b>Amorphous clays</b>: young mixtures of <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> (SiO<sub>2</sub>-OH) and <a href="/wiki/Alumina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumina">alumina</a> (Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>) which have not had time to form regular crystals.</li>
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<li><b>Sesquioxide clays</b>: old, highly leached clays which result in oxides of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977101–07_399-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977101–07-399">[399]</a></sup></li></ol>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Alumino-silica_clays">Alumino-silica clays</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Alumino-silica clays">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p><b>Alumino-silica clays</b> or <a href="/wiki/Aluminosilicate" title="Aluminosilicate">aluminosilicate</a> clays are characterized by their regular <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> or quasi-crystalline structure.<sup id="cite_ref-400" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-400">[400]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> in ionic bonds with <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> forms a <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrahedral">tetrahedral</a> coordination (silicon at the center) which in turn forms sheets of <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a>. Two sheets of silica are bonded together by a plane of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> which forms an <a href="/wiki/Octahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Octahedral">octahedral</a> coordination, called <a href="/wiki/Alumina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumina">alumina</a>, with the oxygens of the silica sheet above and that below it.<sup id="cite_ref-Barton2002_401-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barton2002-401">[401]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">Hydroxyl</a> ions (OH<sup>−</sup>) sometimes substitute for oxygen. During the clay formation process, Al<sup>3+</sup> may substitute for Si<sup>4+</sup> in the silica layer, and as much as one fourth of the aluminium Al<sup>3+</sup> may be substituted by Zn<sup>2+</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup> or Fe<sup>2+</sup> in the alumina layer. The substitution of lower-<a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">valence</a> <a href="/wiki/Cations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cations">cations</a> for higher-valence cations (<a href="/wiki/Isomorphism_(crystallography)" title="Isomorphism (crystallography)">isomorphous</a> substitution) gives clay a local negative <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charge</a> on an oxygen atom<sup id="cite_ref-Barton2002_401-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barton2002-401">[401]</a></sup> that attracts and holds water and positively charged soil cations, some of which are of value for <a href="/wiki/Plant_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant growth">plant growth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-402" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-402">[402]</a></sup> Isomorphous substitution occurs during the clay's formation and does not change with time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977107_403-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977107-403">[403]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimonson195720–21_162-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonson195720–21-162">[162]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<ul><li><b>Montmorillonite</b> clay is made of four planes of oxygen with two silicon and one central aluminium plane intervening. The alumino-silicate montmorillonite clay is thus said to have a 2:1 ratio of silicon to aluminium, in short it is called a 2:1 clay mineral.<sup id="cite_ref-404" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-404">[404]</a></sup> The seven planes together form a single crystal of montmorillonite. The crystals are weakly held together and water may intervene, causing the clay to swell up to ten times its dry volume.<sup id="cite_ref-405" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-405">[405]</a></sup> It occurs in soils which have had little leaching, hence it is found in arid regions, although it may also occur in humid climates, depending on its mineralogical origin.<sup id="cite_ref-406" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-406">[406]</a></sup> As the crystals are not bonded face to face, the entire surface is exposed and available for surface reactions, hence it has a high <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a> (CEC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977108_407-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977108-407">[407]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195733–34_408-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195733–34-408">[408]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195774_409-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195774-409">[409]</a></sup></li>
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<li><b>Illite</b> is a 2:1 clay similar in structure to montmorillonite but has potassium bridges between the faces of the clay crystals and the degree of swelling depends on the degree of weathering of potassium-<a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-410" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-410">[410]</a></sup> The active surface area is reduced due to the potassium bonds. Illite originates from the modification of <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a>, a primary mineral. It is often found together with montmorillonite and its primary minerals. It has moderate CEC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977108–10_411-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977108–10-411">[411]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195733–34_408-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195733–34-408">[408]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDean195782_412-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDean195782-412">[412]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison195790_413-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllison195790-413">[413]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957103_414-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957103-414">[414]</a></sup></li>
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<li><b>Vermiculite</b> is a mica-based clay similar to illite, but the crystals of clay are held together more loosely by hydrated magnesium and it will swell, but not as much as does montmorillonite.<sup id="cite_ref-415" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-415">[415]</a></sup> It has very high CEC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977110_416-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977110-416">[416]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195773_417-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195773-417">[417]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison195790_413-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllison195790-413">[413]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957103_414-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957103-414">[414]</a></sup></li>
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<li><b>Chlorite</b> is similar to vermiculite, but the loose bonding by occasional hydrated magnesium, as in vermiculite, is replaced by a hydrated magnesium sheet, that firmly bonds the planes above and below it. It has two planes of silicon, one of aluminium and one of magnesium; hence it is a 2:2 clay.<sup id="cite_ref-418" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-418">[418]</a></sup> Chlorite does not swell and it has low CEC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977110_416-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977110-416">[416]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmesBrown1957112_419-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesBrown1957112-419">[419]</a></sup></li>
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<li><b>Kaolinite</b> is very common, highly weathered clay, and more common than montmorillonite in acid soils.<sup id="cite_ref-420" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-420">[420]</a></sup> It has one silica and one alumina plane per crystal; hence it is a 1:1 type clay. One plane of silica of montmorillonite is dissolved and is replaced with hydroxyls, which produces strong hydrogen bonds to the oxygen in the next crystal of clay.<sup id="cite_ref-421" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-421">[421]</a></sup> As a result, kaolinite does not swell in water and has a low specific surface area, and as almost no isomorphous substitution has occurred it has a low CEC.<sup id="cite_ref-422" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-422">[422]</a></sup> Where rainfall is high, acid soils selectively leach more silica than alumina from the original clays, leaving kaolinite.<sup id="cite_ref-423" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-423">[423]</a></sup> Even heavier weathering results in sesquioxide clays.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977111_424-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977111-424">[424]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195733_396-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195733-396">[396]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195774_409-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195774-409">[409]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDean195782_412-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDean195782-412">[412]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsenFried195796_425-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsenFried195796-425">[425]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957101_426-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957101-426">[426]</a></sup></li></ul>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Crystalline_chain_clays">Crystalline chain clays</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Crystalline chain clays">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p>The carbonate and sulfate clay minerals are much more soluble and hence are found primarily in desert soils where leaching is less active.<sup id="cite_ref-427" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-427">[427]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Amorphous_clays">Amorphous clays</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Amorphous clays">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<p><b>Amorphous clays</b> are young, and commonly found in recent volcanic ash deposits such as <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-428" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-428">[428]</a></sup> They are mixtures of alumina and silica which have not formed the ordered crystal shape of alumino-silica clays which time would provide. The majority of their negative charges originates from hydroxyl ions, which can gain or lose a hydrogen ion (H<sup>+</sup>) in response to soil pH, in such way was as to buffer the soil pH. They may have either a negative charge provided by the attached hydroxyl ion (OH<sup>−</sup>), which can attract a cation, or lose the hydrogen of the hydroxyl to solution and display a positive charge which can attract anions. As a result, they may display either high CEC in an acid soil solution, or high anion exchange capacity in a basic soil solution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977111_424-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977111-424">[424]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Sesquioxide_clays">Sesquioxide clays</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sesquioxide clays">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:San_Joaquin_soil_profile.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/San_Joaquin_soil_profile.png/170px-San_Joaquin_soil_profile.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/San_Joaquin_soil_profile.png/255px-San_Joaquin_soil_profile.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/San_Joaquin_soil_profile.png/340px-San_Joaquin_soil_profile.png 2x" data-file-width="1596" data-file-height="2270" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:San_Joaquin_soil_profile.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>silica-sesquioxide</div></div></div>
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<p><b><a href="/wiki/Sesquioxide" title="Sesquioxide">Sesquioxide</a> clays</b> are a product of heavy rainfall that has leached most of the silica from alumino-silica clay, leaving the less soluble oxides iron hematite (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), iron hydroxide (Fe(OH)<sub>3</sub>), aluminium hydroxide gibbsite (Al(OH)<sub>3</sub>), hydrated manganese birnessite (MnO<sub>2</sub>), as can be observed in most <a href="/wiki/Lateritic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateritic">lateritic</a> <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> profiles of tropical soils.<sup id="cite_ref-429" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-429">[429]</a></sup> It takes hundreds of thousands of years of leaching to create sesquioxide clays.<sup id="cite_ref-430" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-430">[430]</a></sup> <i>Sesqui</i> is Latin for "one and one-half": there are three parts oxygen to two parts iron or aluminium; hence the ratio is one and one-half (not true for all). They are hydrated and act as either amorphous or crystalline. They are not sticky and do not swell, and soils high in them behave much like sand and can rapidly pass water. They are able to hold large quantities of phosphates, a <a href="/wiki/Sorption" title="Sorption">sorptive</a> process which can at least partly be inhibited in the presence of decomposed (<a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humified</a>) organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-431" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-431">[431]</a></sup> Sesquioxides have low CEC but these variable-charge minerals are able to hold anions as well as cations.<sup id="cite_ref-432" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-432">[432]</a></sup> Such soils range from yellow to red in colour. Such clays tend to hold phosphorus so tightly that it is unavailable for absorption by plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977103–12_433-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977103–12-433">[433]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimonson195718,_21–24,_29_434-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonson195718,_21–24,_29-434">[434]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195732,_35_435-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195732,_35-435">[435]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Organic_colloids">Organic colloids</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Organic colloids">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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||
<p><a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">Humus</a> is one of the two final stages of <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a> of organic matter. It remains in the soil as the organic component of the soil matrix while the other stage, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, is freely liberated in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> or reacts with <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> to form the soluble <a href="/wiki/Calcium_bicarbonate" title="Calcium bicarbonate">calcium bicarbonate</a>. While humus may linger for a thousand years,<sup id="cite_ref-436" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-436">[436]</a></sup> on the larger scale of the age of the mineral soil components, it is temporary, being finally released as CO<sub>2</sub>. It is composed of the very stable <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignins</a> (30%) and complex <a href="/wiki/Sugars" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugars">sugars</a> (polyuronides, 30%), <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a> (30%), <a href="/wiki/Waxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Waxes">waxes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fats</a> that are resistant to breakdown by microbes and can form <a href="/wiki/Metal_complexes" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal complexes">complexes with metals</a>, facilitating their downward migration (<a href="/wiki/Podzolization" class="mw-redirect" title="Podzolization">podzolization</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-437" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-437">[437]</a></sup> However, although originating for its main part from dead plant organs (wood, bark, foliage, roots), a large part of humus comes from organic compounds excreted by soil organisms (roots, microbes, animals) and from their decomposition upon death.<sup id="cite_ref-438" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-438">[438]</a></sup> Its chemical assay is 60% carbon, 5% nitrogen, some oxygen and the remainder hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. On a dry weight basis, the <a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity" title="Cation-exchange capacity">CEC</a> of humus is many times greater than that of clay.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977112_439-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977112-439">[439]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195735_440-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195735-440">[440]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllaway195769_441-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllaway195769-441">[441]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Humus plays a major role in the regulation of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">atmospheric carbon</a>, through <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> in the soil profile, more especially in deeper horizons with reduced <a href="/wiki/Biological_activity" title="Biological activity">biological activity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-442" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-442">[442]</a></sup> Stocking and destocking of soil carbon are under strong climate influence.<sup id="cite_ref-443" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-443">[443]</a></sup> They are normally balanced through an equilibrium between <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">production</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil_science)" title="Mineralization (soil science)">mineralization</a> of organic matter, but the balance is in favour of destocking under present-day <a href="/wiki/Climate_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate warming">climate warming</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-444" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-444">[444]</a></sup> and more especially in <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-445" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-445">[445]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Carbon_and_terra_preta">Carbon and terra preta</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Carbon and terra preta">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>In the extreme environment of high temperatures and the leaching caused by the heavy rain of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rain_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical rain forests">tropical rain forests</a>, the clay and organic colloids are largely destroyed. The heavy rains wash the <a href="/wiki/Alumino-silicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumino-silicate">alumino-silicate</a> clays from the soil leaving only <a href="/wiki/Sesquioxide" title="Sesquioxide">sesquioxide</a> clays of low <a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity" title="Cation-exchange capacity">CEC</a>. The high temperatures and humidity allow bacteria and fungi to virtually decay any organic matter on the rain-forest <a href="/wiki/Forest_floor" title="Forest floor">floor</a> overnight and much of the nutrients are volatilized or leached from the soil and lost,<sup id="cite_ref-446" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-446">[446]</a></sup> leaving only a thin root mat lying directly on the mineral soil.<sup id="cite_ref-447" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-447">[447]</a></sup> However, carbon in the form of finely divided <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">black carbon</a>, is far more stable than soil colloids and is capable of performing many of the functions of the soil colloids of sub-tropical soils.<sup id="cite_ref-448" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-448">[448]</a></sup> Soil containing substantial quantities of charcoal, of an anthropogenic origin, is called <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">terra preta</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Amazonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazonia">Amazonia</a> it testifies for the agronomic knowledge of past <a href="/wiki/Amerindian" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerindian">Amerindian</a> civilizations.<sup id="cite_ref-449" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-449">[449]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pantropical" title="Pantropical">pantropical</a> peregrine earthworm <i>Pontoscolex corethrurus</i> has been suspected to contribute to the fine division of charcoal and its mixing to the mineral soil in the frame of present-day <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">shifting cultivation</a> still practiced by Amerindian tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-450" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-450">[450]</a></sup> Research into terra preta is still young but is promising. <a href="/wiki/Fallow" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallow">Fallow</a> periods "on the Amazonian Dark Earths can be as short as 6 months, whereas fallow periods on <a href="/wiki/Oxisol" title="Oxisol">oxisols</a> are usually 8 to 10 years long"<sup id="cite_ref-451" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-451">[451]</a></sup> The incorporation of charcoal to agricultural soil for improving water and nutrient retention has been called <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a>, being extended to other charred or carbon-rich by-products, and is now increasingly used in <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainable</a> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_agriculture" title="Tropical agriculture">tropical agriculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-452" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-452">[452]</a></sup> Biochar also allows the irreversible sorption of pesticides and other pollutants, a mechanism by which their mobility, and thus their environmental risk, decreases.<sup id="cite_ref-453" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-453">[453]</a></sup> It has also been argued as a mean of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestering</a> more carbon in the soil, thereby mitigating the so-called <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-454" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-454">[454]</a></sup> However, the use of biochar is limited by the availability of wood or other products of <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> and by risks caused by concomitent <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-455" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-455">[455]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Chemistry">Chemistry</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Chemistry">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a>.</div>
|
||
<p>The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">plant nutrients</a> and affects its physical properties and the health of its living population. In addition, a soil's chemistry also determines its <a href="/wiki/Corrosivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Corrosivity">corrosivity</a>, stability, and ability to <a href="/wiki/Sorption" title="Sorption">absorb</a> <a href="/wiki/Pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollutants">pollutants</a> and to filter water. It is the <a href="/wiki/Surface_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface chemistry">surface chemistry</a> of mineral and organic <a href="/wiki/Colloids" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloids">colloids</a> that determines soil's chemical properties.<sup id="cite_ref-456" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-456">[456]</a></sup> A colloid is a small, insoluble particle ranging in size from 1 <a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nanometer</a> to 1 <a href="/wiki/Micrometer" title="Micrometer">micrometer</a>, thus small enough to remain suspended by <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a> in a fluid medium without settling.<sup id="cite_ref-457" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-457">[457]</a></sup> Most soils contain organic colloidal particles called <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humus</a> as well as the inorganic colloidal particles of <a href="/wiki/Clays" class="mw-redirect" title="Clays">clays</a>. The very high <a href="/wiki/Specific_surface_area" title="Specific surface area">specific surface area</a> of colloids and their net <a href="/wiki/Electrical_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical charge">electrical charges</a> give soil its ability to hold and release <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a>. Negatively charged sites on colloids attract and release cations in what is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange">cation exchange</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity" title="Cation-exchange capacity">Cation-exchange capacity</a> (CEC) is the amount of exchangeable <a href="/wiki/Cations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cations">cations</a> per unit weight of dry soil and is expressed in terms of <a href="/wiki/Milliequivalents" class="mw-redirect" title="Milliequivalents">milliequivalents</a> of <a href="/wiki/Positively_charged" class="mw-redirect" title="Positively charged">positively charged</a> ions per 100 grams of soil (or centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil; cmol<sub>c</sub>/kg). Similarly, positively charged sites on colloids can attract and release <a href="/wiki/Anions" class="mw-redirect" title="Anions">anions</a> in the soil giving the soil <a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity" title="Cation-exchange capacity">anion exchange capacity</a> (AEC).
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cation_and_anion_exchange">Cation and anion exchange</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Cation and anion exchange">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cation-exchange_capacity" title="Cation-exchange capacity">Cation-exchange capacity</a></div>
|
||
<p>The cation exchange, that takes place between colloids and soil water, <a href="/wiki/Buffer_solution" title="Buffer solution">buffers</a> (moderates) <a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">soil pH</a>, alters <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">soil structure</a>, and purifies percolating water by adsorbing cations of all types, both useful and harmful.
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||
</p><p>The negative or positive charges on colloid particles make them able to hold cations or anions, respectively, to their surfaces. The charges result from four sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977103–06_458-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977103–06-458">[458]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li>Isomorphous substitution occurs in clay during its formation, when lower-valence cations substitute for higher-valence cations in the crystal structure.<sup id="cite_ref-PMID10097044_203-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID10097044-203">[203]</a></sup> Substitutions in the outermost layers are more effective than for the innermost layers, as the <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> strength drops off as the square of the distance. The net result is oxygen atoms with net negative charge and the ability to attract cations.</li>
|
||
<li>Edge-of-clay oxygen atoms are not in balance ionically as the tetrahedral and octahedral structures are incomplete.<sup id="cite_ref-459" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-459">[459]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">Hydroxyls</a> may substitute for oxygens of the silica layers, a process called <a href="/wiki/Hydroxylation" title="Hydroxylation">hydroxylation</a>. When the hydrogens of the clay hydroxyls are ionised into solution, they leave the oxygen with a negative charge (anionic clays).<sup id="cite_ref-460" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-460">[460]</a></sup></li>
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||
<li>Hydrogens of humus hydroxyl groups may also be ionised into solution, leaving, similarly to clay, an oxygen with a negative charge.<sup id="cite_ref-461" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-461">[461]</a></sup></li></ol>
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||
<p>Cations held to the negatively charged colloids resist being washed downward by water and out of reach of plants' roots, thereby preserving the fertility of soils in areas of moderate rainfall and low temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-462" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-462">[462]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-463" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-463">[463]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>There is a hierarchy in the process of cation exchange on colloids, as they differ in the strength of <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a> by the colloid and hence their ability to replace one another (<a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">ion exchange</a>). If present in equal amounts in the soil water solution:
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</p><p>Al<sup>3+</sup> replaces H<sup>+</sup> replaces Ca<sup>2+</sup> replaces Mg<sup>2+</sup> replaces K<sup>+</sup> same as NH<sup>4+</sup> replaces Na<sup>+</sup><sup id="cite_ref-464" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-464">[464]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>If one cation is added in large amounts, it may replace the others by the sheer force of its numbers. This is called <a href="/wiki/Law_of_mass_action" title="Law of mass action">law of mass action</a>. This is largely what occurs with the addition of cationic fertilisers (<a href="/wiki/Potash" title="Potash">potash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-465" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-465">[465]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>As the soil solution becomes more acidic (low <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>, meaning an abundance of H<sup>+</sup>, the other cations more weakly bound to colloids are pushed into solution as hydrogen ions occupy exchange sites (<a href="/wiki/Protonation" title="Protonation">protonation</a>). A low pH may cause hydrogen of hydroxyl groups to be pulled into solution, leaving charged sites on the colloid available to be occupied by other cations. This ionisation of hydroxyl groups on the surface of soil colloids creates what is described as pH-dependent surface charges.<sup id="cite_ref-466" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-466">[466]</a></sup> Unlike permanent charges developed by isomorphous substitution, pH-dependent charges are variable and increase with increasing pH.<sup id="cite_ref-CEC_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CEC-43">[43]</a></sup> Freed cations can be made available to plants but are also prone to be leached from the soil, possibly making the soil less fertile.<sup id="cite_ref-467" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-467">[467]</a></sup> Plants are able to excrete H<sup>+</sup> into the soil through the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Organic_acid" title="Organic acid">organic acids</a> and by that means, change the pH of the soil near the root and push cations off the colloids, thus making those available to the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-468" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-468">[468]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
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||
<h4><span id="Cation_exchange_capacity_.28CEC.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Cation_exchange_capacity_(CEC)">Cation exchange capacity (CEC)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Cation exchange capacity (CEC)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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||
<p><a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">Cation exchange capacity</a> should be thought of as the soil's ability to remove cations from the soil water solution and sequester those to be exchanged later as the plant roots release hydrogen ions to the solution. CEC is the amount of exchangeable hydrogen cation (H<sup>+</sup>) that will combine with 100 grams dry weight of soil and whose measure is one milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil (1 meq/100 g). Hydrogen ions have a single charge and one-thousandth of a gram of hydrogen ions per 100 grams dry soil gives a measure of one milliequivalent of hydrogen ion. Calcium, with an atomic weight 40 times that of hydrogen and with a valence of two, converts to (40/2) x 1 milliequivalent = 20 milliequivalents of hydrogen ion per 100 grams of dry soil or 20 meq/100 g.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977114_469-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977114-469">[469]</a></sup> The modern measure of CEC is expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram (cmol/kg) of oven-dry soil.
|
||
</p><p>Most of the soil's CEC occurs on clay and humus colloids, and the lack of those in hot, humid, wet climates, due to leaching and decomposition, respectively, explains the apparent sterility of tropical soils.<sup id="cite_ref-470" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-470">[470]</a></sup> Live plant roots also have some CEC, linked to their <a href="/wiki/Specific_surface_area" title="Specific surface area">specific surface area</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-471" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-471">[471]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<table class="wikitable" style="border-spacing: 5px; margin:auto;">
|
||
<caption><b>Cation exchange capacity for soils; soil textures; soil colloids</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977115–16_472-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977115–16-472">[472]</a></sup>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:200px;">Soil
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">State
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">CEC meq/100 g
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Charlotte fine sand</td>
|
||
<td>Florida</td>
|
||
<td>1.0
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Ruston fine sandy loam</td>
|
||
<td>Texas</td>
|
||
<td>1.9
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Glouchester loam</td>
|
||
<td>New Jersey</td>
|
||
<td>11.9
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Grundy silt loam</td>
|
||
<td>Illinois</td>
|
||
<td>26.3
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Gleason clay loam</td>
|
||
<td>California</td>
|
||
<td>31.6
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Susquehanna clay loam</td>
|
||
<td>Alabama</td>
|
||
<td>34.3
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Davie mucky fine sand</td>
|
||
<td>Florida</td>
|
||
<td>100.8
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Sands</td>
|
||
<td>------</td>
|
||
<td>1–5
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Fine sandy loams</td>
|
||
<td>------</td>
|
||
<td>5–10
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Loams and silt loams</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>5–15
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Clay loams</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>15–30
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Clays</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>over 30
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Sesquioxides</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>0–3
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Kaolinite</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>3–15
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Illite</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>25–40
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Montmorillonite</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>60–100
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Vermiculite (similar to illite)</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>80–150
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Humus</td>
|
||
<td>-----</td>
|
||
<td>100–300
|
||
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<h4><span id="Anion_exchange_capacity_.28AEC.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Anion_exchange_capacity_(AEC)">Anion exchange capacity (AEC)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Anion exchange capacity (AEC)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<p>Anion exchange capacity should be thought of as the soil's ability to remove anions (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>) from the soil water solution and sequester those for later exchange as the plant roots release <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> anions to the soil water solution. Those colloids which have low CEC tend to have some AEC. Amorphous and sesquioxide clays have the highest AEC,<sup id="cite_ref-473" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-473">[473]</a></sup> followed by the iron oxides. Levels of AEC are much lower than for CEC, because of the generally higher rate of positively (versus negatively) charged surfaces on soil colloids, to the exception of variable-charge soils.<sup id="cite_ref-474" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-474">[474]</a></sup> Phosphates tend to be held at anion exchange sites.<sup id="cite_ref-475" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-475">[475]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Iron and aluminum hydroxide clays are able to exchange their hydroxide anions (OH<sup>−</sup>) for other anions.<sup id="cite_ref-476" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-476">[476]</a></sup> The order reflecting the strength of anion adhesion is as follows:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<dl><dd>H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup> replaces SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup> replaces NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> replaces Cl<sup>−</sup></dd></dl>
|
||
<p>The amount of exchangeable anions is of a magnitude of tenths to a few milliequivalents per 100 g dry soil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977115–16_472-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977115–16-472">[472]</a></sup> As pH rises, there are relatively more hydroxyls, which will displace anions from the colloids and force them into solution and out of storage; hence AEC decreases with increasing pH (alkalinity).<sup id="cite_ref-477" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-477">[477]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span id="Reactivity_.28pH.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Reactivity_(pH)">Reactivity (pH)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Reactivity (pH)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">Soil pH</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_pH#Effect_of_soil_pH_on_plant_growth" title="Soil pH">Soil pH § Effect of soil pH on plant growth</a></div>
|
||
<p>Soil reactivity is expressed in terms of <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> and is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. More precisely, it is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous solution and ranges in values from 0 to 14 (acidic to basic) but practically speaking for soils, pH ranges from 3.5 to 9.5, as pH values beyond those extremes are toxic to life forms.<sup id="cite_ref-478" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-478">[478]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>At 25 °C an aqueous solution that has a pH of 3.5 has 10<sup>−3.5</sup> <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">moles</a> H<sup>+</sup> (hydrogen ions) per litre of solution (and also 10<sup>−10.5</sup> mole/litre OH<sup>−</sup>). A pH of 7, defined as neutral, has 10<sup>−7</sup> moles of hydrogen ions per litre of solution and also 10<sup>−7</sup> moles of OH<sup>−</sup> per litre; since the two concentrations are equal, they are said to neutralise each other. A pH of 9.5 has 10<sup>−9.5</sup> moles hydrogen ions per litre of solution (and also 10<sup>−2.5</sup> mole per litre OH<sup>−</sup>). A pH of 3.5 has one million times more hydrogen ions per litre than a solution with pH of 9.5 (9.5–3.5 = 6 or 10<sup>6</sup>) and is more acidic.<sup id="cite_ref-479" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-479">[479]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The effect of pH on a soil is to remove from the soil or to make available certain ions. Soils with high acidity tend to have toxic amounts of aluminium and manganese.<sup id="cite_ref-480" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-480">[480]</a></sup> As a result of a trade-off between toxicity and requirement most nutrients are better available to plants at moderate pH,<sup id="cite_ref-481" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-481">[481]</a></sup> although most minerals are more soluble in acid soils. Soil organisms are hindered by high acidity, and most agricultural crops do best with mineral soils of pH 6.5 and organic soils of pH 5.5.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977116–17_482-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977116–17-482">[482]</a></sup> Given that at low pH toxic metals (e.g. cadmium, zinc, lead) are positively charged as cations and organic pollutants are in non-ionic form, thus both made more available to organisms,<sup id="cite_ref-483" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-483">[483]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-484" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-484">[484]</a></sup> it has been suggested that plants, animals and microbes commonly living in acid soils are <a href="/wiki/Pre-adapted" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-adapted">pre-adapted</a> to every kind of pollution, whether of natural or human origin.<sup id="cite_ref-485" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-485">[485]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>In high rainfall areas, soils tend to acidity as the basic cations are forced off the soil colloids by the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_mass_action" title="Law of mass action">mass action</a> of hydrogen ions from the rain against those attached to the colloids. High rainfall rates can then wash the nutrients out, leaving the soil inhabited only by those organisms which are particularly efficient to uptake nutrients in very acid conditions, like in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforests" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical rainforests">tropical rainforests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-486" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-486">[486]</a></sup> Once the colloids are saturated with H<sup>+</sup>, the addition of any more hydrogen ions or aluminum hydroxyl cations drives the pH even lower (more acidic) as the soil has been left with no buffering capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-487" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-487">[487]</a></sup> In areas of extreme rainfall and high temperatures, the clay and humus may be washed out, further reducing the buffering capacity of the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-488" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-488">[488]</a></sup> In low rainfall areas, unleached calcium pushes pH to 8.5 and with the addition of exchangeable sodium, soils may reach pH 10.<sup id="cite_ref-489" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-489">[489]</a></sup> Beyond a pH of 9, plant growth is reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-490" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-490">[490]</a></sup> High pH results in low <a href="/wiki/Micro-nutrient" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-nutrient">micro-nutrient</a> mobility, but water-soluble <a href="/wiki/Chelates" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelates">chelates</a> of those nutrients can correct the deficit.<sup id="cite_ref-491" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-491">[491]</a></sup> Sodium can be reduced by the addition of <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> (calcium sulphate) as calcium adheres to clay more tightly than does sodium causing sodium to be pushed into the soil water solution where it can be washed out by an abundance of water.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977116–19_492-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977116–19-492">[492]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-493" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-493">[493]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Base_saturation_percentage">Base saturation percentage</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Base saturation percentage">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<p>There are acid-forming cations (e.g. hydrogen, aluminium, iron) and there are base-forming cations (e.g. calcium, magnesium, sodium). The fraction of the negatively-charged soil colloid exchange sites (<a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">CEC</a>) that are occupied by base-forming cations is called <a href="/wiki/Base_saturation" class="mw-redirect" title="Base saturation">base saturation</a>. If a soil has a CEC of 20 meq and 5 meq are aluminium and hydrogen cations (acid-forming), the remainder of positions on the colloids (20-5 = 15 meq) are assumed occupied by base-forming cations, so that the base saturation is 15/20 x 100% = 75% (the compliment 25% is assumed acid-forming cations or <a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a>). Base saturation is almost in direct proportion to pH (it increases with increasing pH).<sup id="cite_ref-494" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-494">[494]</a></sup> It is of use in calculating the amount of lime needed to neutralise an acid soil (lime requirement). The amount of lime needed to neutralize a soil must take account of the amount of acid forming ions on the colloids (exchangeable acidity), not just those in the soil water solution (free acidity).<sup id="cite_ref-495" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-495">[495]</a></sup> The addition of enough lime to neutralize the soil water solution will be insufficient to change the pH, as the acid forming cations stored on the soil colloids will tend to restore the original pH condition as they are pushed off those colloids by the calcium of the added lime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977119–20_496-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977119–20-496">[496]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Buffering">Buffering</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Buffering">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soil_conditioner" title="Soil conditioner">Soil conditioner</a></div>
|
||
<p>The resistance of soil to change in pH, as a result of the addition of acid or basic material, is a measure of the <a href="/wiki/Buffering_agent" title="Buffering agent">buffering</a> capacity of a soil and (for a particular soil type) increases as the <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">CEC</a> increases. Hence, pure sand has almost no buffering ability, while soils high in colloids (whether mineral or organic) have high <a href="/wiki/Buffering_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffering capacity">buffering capacity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-497" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-497">[497]</a></sup> Buffering occurs by <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange">cation exchange</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_(chemistry)" title="Neutralization (chemistry)">neutralisation</a>. However, colloids are not the only regulators of soil pH. The role of <a href="/wiki/Carbonates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonates">carbonates</a> should be underlined, too.<sup id="cite_ref-498" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-498">[498]</a></sup> More generally, according to pH levels, several buffer systems take precedence over each other, from <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> <a href="/wiki/Buffer_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Buffer range">buffer range</a> to iron buffer range.<sup id="cite_ref-499" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-499">[499]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The addition of a small amount of highly basic aqueous ammonia to a soil will cause the ammonium to displace hydrogen ions from the colloids, and the end product is water and colloidally fixed ammonium, but little permanent change overall in soil pH.
|
||
</p><p>The addition of a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Liming_(soil)" title="Liming (soil)">lime</a>, Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub>, will displace hydrogen ions from the soil colloids, causing the fixation of calcium to colloids and the evolution of CO<sub>2</sub> and water, with little permanent change in soil pH.
|
||
</p><p>The above are examples of the buffering of soil pH. The general principal is that an increase in a particular cation in the soil water solution will cause that cation to be fixed to colloids (buffered) and a decrease in solution of that cation will cause it to be withdrawn from the colloid and moved into solution (buffered). The degree of buffering is often related to the CEC of the soil; the greater the CEC, the greater the buffering capacity of the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977120–21_500-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977120–21-500">[500]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Nutrients">Nutrients</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Nutrients">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Plant nutrition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_pH#Effect_of_soil_pH_on_plant_growth" title="Soil pH">Soil pH § Effect of soil pH on plant growth</a></div>
|
||
<p>Seventeen elements or <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> are essential for plant growth and reproduction. They are <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> <b>C</b>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> <b>H</b>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> <b>O</b>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> <b>N</b>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> <b>P</b>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> <b>K</b>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> <b>S</b>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> <b>Ca</b>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> <b>Mg</b>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> <b>Fe</b>, <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> <b>B</b>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> <b>Mn</b>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> <b>Cu</b>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> <b>Zn</b>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a> <b>Mo</b>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> <b>Ni</b> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> <b>Cl</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDean195780_501-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDean195780-501">[501]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussel1957123–25_502-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussel1957123–25-502">[502]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BradyWeil_503-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BradyWeil-503">[503]</a></sup> Nutrients required for plants to complete their life cycle are considered <b><a href="/wiki/Essential_nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Essential nutrients">essential nutrients</a></b>. Nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant's life cycle are considered <b>non-essential</b>. With the exception of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are supplied by carbon dioxide and water, and nitrogen, provided through <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-BradyWeil_503-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BradyWeil-503">[503]</a></sup> the nutrients derive originally from the mineral component of the soil. The <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Minimum" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the Minimum">Law of the Minimum</a> expresses that when the available form of a nutrient is not in enough proportion in the soil solution, then other nutrients cannot be taken up at an optimum rate by a plant.<sup id="cite_ref-504" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-504">[504]</a></sup> A particular nutrient ratio of the soil solution is thus mandatory for optimizing plant growth, a value which might differ from nutrient ratios calculated from plant composition.<sup id="cite_ref-505" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-505">[505]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed when they are present in a plant-available form. In most situations, nutrients are absorbed in an ionic form from (or together with) soil water. Although minerals are the origin of most nutrients, and the bulk of most nutrient elements in the soil is held in crystalline form within primary and secondary minerals, they <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weather</a> too slowly to support rapid plant growth. For example, the application of finely ground minerals, <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apatite" title="Apatite">apatite</a>, to soil seldom provides the necessary amounts of potassium and phosphorus at a rate sufficient for good plant growth, as most of the nutrients remain bound in the crystals of those minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDean195780–81_506-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDean195780–81-506">[506]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The nutrients adsorbed onto the surfaces of clay colloids and <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a> provide a more accessible reservoir of many plant nutrients (e.g. K, Ca, Mg, P, Zn). As plants absorb the nutrients from the soil water, the soluble pool is replenished from the surface-bound pool. The decomposition of <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a> by microorganisms is another mechanism whereby the soluble pool of nutrients is replenished – this is important for the supply of plant-available N, S, P, and B from soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Roy2006Chapter4_507-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roy2006Chapter4-507">[507]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Gram for gram, the capacity of <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humus</a> to hold nutrients and water is far greater than that of clay minerals, most of the soil <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange capacity">cation exchange capacity</a> arising from charged <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxylic">carboxylic</a> groups on organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-508" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-508">[508]</a></sup> However, despite the great capacity of humus to retain water once water-soaked, its high <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobicity">hydrophobicity</a> decreases its <a href="/wiki/Wettability" class="mw-redirect" title="Wettability">wettability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-509" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-509">[509]</a></sup> All in all, small amounts of humus may remarkably increase the soil's capacity to promote plant growth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977123–31_510-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977123–31-510">[510]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roy2006Chapter4_507-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roy2006Chapter4-507">[507]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<table class="wikitable sortable" style="border-spacing: 2px; margin:auto;">
|
||
<caption><b>Plant nutrients, their chemical symbols, and the ionic forms common in soils and available for plant uptake</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977125_511-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977125-511">[511]</a></sup>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<th>Element</th>
|
||
<th>Symbol</th>
|
||
<th>Ion or molecule
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Carbon</td>
|
||
<td>C</td>
|
||
<td>CO<sub>2</sub> (mostly through leaves)
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Hydrogen</td>
|
||
<td>H</td>
|
||
<td>H<sup>+</sup>, HOH (water)
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Oxygen</td>
|
||
<td>O</td>
|
||
<td>O<sup>2−</sup>, OH<sup> −</sup>, CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2−</sup>, SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>, CO<sub>2</sub>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Phosphorus</td>
|
||
<td>P</td>
|
||
<td>H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup> −</sup>, HPO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup> (phosphates)
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Potassium</td>
|
||
<td>K</td>
|
||
<td>K<sup>+</sup>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Nitrogen</td>
|
||
<td>N</td>
|
||
<td>NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>, NO<sub>3</sub><sup> −</sup> (ammonium, nitrate)
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Sulfur</td>
|
||
<td>S</td>
|
||
<td>SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Calcium</td>
|
||
<td>Ca</td>
|
||
<td>Ca<sup>2+</sup>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Iron</td>
|
||
<td>Fe</td>
|
||
<td>Fe<sup>2+</sup>, Fe<sup>3+</sup> (ferrous, ferric)
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Magnesium</td>
|
||
<td>Mg</td>
|
||
<td>Mg<sup>2+</sup>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Boron</td>
|
||
<td>B</td>
|
||
<td>H<sub>3</sub>BO<sub>3</sub>, H<sub>2</sub>BO<sub>3</sub><sup> −</sup>, B(OH)<sub>4</sub><sup> −</sup>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Manganese</td>
|
||
<td>Mn</td>
|
||
<td>Mn<sup>2+</sup>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Copper</td>
|
||
<td>Cu</td>
|
||
<td>Cu<sup>2+</sup>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Zinc</td>
|
||
<td>Zn</td>
|
||
<td>Zn<sup>2+</sup>
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Molybdenum</td>
|
||
<td>Mo</td>
|
||
<td>MoO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup> (molybdate)
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Chlorine</td>
|
||
<td>Cl</td>
|
||
<td>Cl<sup> −</sup> (chloride)
|
||
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Uptake_processes">Uptake processes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Uptake processes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>Nutrients in the soil are taken up by the plant through its roots, and in particular its <a href="/wiki/Root_hairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Root hairs">root hairs</a>. To be taken up by a plant, a nutrient element must be located near the root surface; however, the supply of nutrients in contact with the root is rapidly depleted within a distance of ca. 2 mm.<sup id="cite_ref-512" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-512">[512]</a></sup> There are three basic mechanisms whereby nutrient ions dissolved in the soil solution are brought into contact with plant roots:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_flow" title="Mass flow">Mass flow</a> of water</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">Diffusion</a> within water</li>
|
||
<li>Interception by root growth</li></ol>
|
||
<p>All three mechanisms operate simultaneously, but one mechanism or another may be most important for a particular nutrient.<sup id="cite_ref-513" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-513">[513]</a></sup> For example, in the case of calcium, which is generally plentiful in the soil solution, except when aluminium over competes calcium on <a href="/wiki/Cation_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation exchange">cation exchange</a> sites in very acid soils (pH less than 4),<sup id="cite_ref-514" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-514">[514]</a></sup> mass flow alone can usually bring sufficient amounts to the root surface. However, in the case of phosphorus, diffusion is needed to supplement mass flow. For the most part, nutrient ions must travel some distance in the soil solution to reach the root surface. This movement can take place by mass flow, as when dissolved nutrients are carried along with the soil water flowing toward a root that is actively drawing water from the soil. In this type of movement, the nutrient ions are somewhat analogous to leaves floating down a stream. In addition, nutrient ions continually move by diffusion from areas of greater concentration toward the nutrient-depleted areas of lower concentration around the root surface. That process is due to random motion, also called <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a>, of molecules within a gradient of decreasing concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-515" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-515">[515]</a></sup> By this means, plants can continue to take up nutrients even at night, when water is only slowly absorbed into the roots as <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> has almost stopped following <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomatal</a> closure. Finally, root interception comes into play as roots continually grow into new, undepleted soil. By this way roots are also able to absorb <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticulate">nanoparticulate</a> organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-516" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-516">[516]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<table class="wikitable" style="border-spacing: 5px; margin:auto;">
|
||
<caption><b>Estimated relative importance of mass flow, diffusion and root interception as mechanisms in supplying plant nutrients to corn plant roots in soils</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977126_517-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977126-517">[517]</a></sup>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;" rowspan="2">Nutrient
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th colspan="3">Approximate percentage supplied by:
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Mass flow
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Root interception
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col" style="width:100px;">Diffusion
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Nitrogen</td>
|
||
<td>98.8</td>
|
||
<td>1.2</td>
|
||
<td>0
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Phosphorus</td>
|
||
<td>6.3</td>
|
||
<td>2.8</td>
|
||
<td>90.9
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Potassium</td>
|
||
<td>20.0</td>
|
||
<td>2.3</td>
|
||
<td>77.7
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Calcium</td>
|
||
<td>71.4</td>
|
||
<td>28.6</td>
|
||
<td>0
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Sulfur</td>
|
||
<td>95.0</td>
|
||
<td>5.0</td>
|
||
<td>0
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Molybdenum</td>
|
||
<td>95.2</td>
|
||
<td>4.8</td>
|
||
<td>0
|
||
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<p>In the above table, phosphorus and potassium nutrients move more by diffusion than they do by mass flow in the soil water solution, as they are rapidly taken up by the roots creating a concentration of almost zero near the roots (the plants cannot transpire enough water to draw more of those nutrients near the roots). The very steep concentration gradient is of greater influence in the movement of those ions than is the movement of those by mass flow.<sup id="cite_ref-518" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-518">[518]</a></sup> The movement by mass flow requires the transpiration of water from the plant causing water and solution ions to also move toward the roots.<sup id="cite_ref-519" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-519">[519]</a></sup> Movement by root interception is slowest as the plants must extend their roots.<sup id="cite_ref-520" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-520">[520]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Plants move ions out of their roots in an effort to move nutrients in from the soil, an exchange process which occurs in the root <a href="/wiki/Apoplast" title="Apoplast">apoplast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-521" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-521">[521]</a></sup> Hydrogen H<sup>+</sup> is exchanged for other cations, and carbonate (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) and hydroxide (OH<sup>−</sup>) anions are exchanged for nutrient anions.<sup id="cite_ref-522" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-522">[522]</a></sup> As plant roots remove nutrients from the soil water solution, they are replenished as other ions move off of clay and humus (by <a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">ion exchange</a> or <a href="/wiki/Desorption" title="Desorption">desorption</a>), are added from the <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> of soil minerals, and are released by the <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter#Decomposition" title="Soil organic matter">decomposition of soil organic matter</a>. However, the rate at which plant roots remove nutrients may not cope with the rate at which they are replenished in the soil solution, stemming in nutrient limitation to plant growth.<sup id="cite_ref-523" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-523">[523]</a></sup> Plants derive a large proportion of their anion nutrients from decomposing organic matter, which typically holds about 95 percent of the soil nitrogen, 5 to 60 percent of the soil phosphorus and about 80 percent of the soil sulfur. Where crops are produced, the replenishment of nutrients in the soil must usually be augmented by the addition of fertilizer or organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977126_517-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977126-517">[517]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Because nutrient uptake is an active metabolic process, conditions that inhibit root metabolism may also inhibit nutrient uptake.<sup id="cite_ref-524" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-524">[524]</a></sup> Examples of such conditions include <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogging</a> or <a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">soil compaction</a> resulting in poor <a href="/wiki/Soil_aeration" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil aeration">soil aeration</a>, excessively high or low soil temperatures, and above-ground conditions that result in low translocation of sugars to plant roots.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977123–28_525-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977123–28-525">[525]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Carbon">Carbon</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Carbon">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:SRS2000_soil_respiration_system.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SRS2000_soil_respiration_system.jpg/220px-SRS2000_soil_respiration_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SRS2000_soil_respiration_system.jpg/330px-SRS2000_soil_respiration_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/SRS2000_soil_respiration_system.jpg/440px-SRS2000_soil_respiration_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="711" data-file-height="535" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:SRS2000_soil_respiration_system.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Measuring soil respiration in the field using an SRS2000 system.</div></div></div>
|
||
<p>Plants obtain their carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Carboxylation" title="Carboxylation">carboxylation</a>, to which must be added the uptake of dissolved carbon from the soil solution<sup id="cite_ref-526" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-526">[526]</a></sup> and carbon transfer through <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycorrhizal networks">mycorrhizal networks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-527" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-527">[527]</a></sup> About 45% of a plant's dry mass is carbon; plant residues typically have a carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) of between 13:1 and 100:1. As the soil organic material is digested by <a href="/wiki/Micro-organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-organisms">micro-organisms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saprophagous" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprophagous">saprophagous</a> <a href="/wiki/Soil_fauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil fauna">soil fauna</a>, the C/N decreases as the carbonaceous material is metabolized and carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) is released as a byproduct which then finds its way out of the soil and into the atmosphere. Nitrogen turnover (mostly involved in <a href="/wiki/Protein_turnover" title="Protein turnover">protein turnover</a>) is lesser than that of carbon (mostly involved in <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>) in the living, then dead matter of <a href="/wiki/Decomposers" class="mw-redirect" title="Decomposers">decomposers</a>, which are always richer in nitrogen than <a href="/wiki/Plant_litter" title="Plant litter">plant litter</a>, and so it builds up in the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-528" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-528">[528]</a></sup> Normal CO<sub>2</sub> concentration in the atmosphere is 0.03%, this can be the factor limiting plant growth. In a field of maize on a still day during high light conditions in the growing season, the CO<sub>2</sub> concentration drops very low, but under such conditions the crop could use up to 20 times the normal concentration. The respiration of CO<sub>2</sub> by soil micro-organisms decomposing soil organic matter and the CO<sub>2</sub> respired by roots contribute an important amount of CO<sub>2</sub> to the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesising" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthesising">photosynthesising</a> plants, to which must be added the CO<sub>2</sub> respired by aboveground plant tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-529" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-529">[529]</a></sup> Root-respired CO<sub>2</sub> can be accumulated overnight within hollow stems of plants, to be further used for photosynthesis during the day.<sup id="cite_ref-530" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-530">[530]</a></sup> Within the soil, CO<sub>2</sub> concentration is 10 to 100 times that of atmospheric levels but may rise to toxic levels if the soil porosity is low or if diffusion is impeded by flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195741_531-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195741-531">[531]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDean195780_501-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDean195780-501">[501]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadbent1957153_532-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbent1957153-532">[532]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Nitrogen">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></div>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:SoilNitrogen.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/SoilNitrogen.jpg/200px-SoilNitrogen.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="243" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/SoilNitrogen.jpg/300px-SoilNitrogen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/SoilNitrogen.jpg/400px-SoilNitrogen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="417" data-file-height="506" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:SoilNitrogen.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Generalization of percent soil nitrogen by soil order</div></div></div></div>
|
||
<p>Nitrogen is the most critical element obtained by plants from the soil, to the exception of moist tropical forests where phosphorus is the <a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">limiting soil nutrient</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-533" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-533">[533]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_deficiency" title="Nitrogen deficiency">nitrogen deficiency</a> often limits plant growth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977128_534-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977128-534">[534]</a></sup> Plants can use the nitrogen as either the <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> cation (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>) or the anion <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>). Plants are commonly classified as ammonium or nitrate plants according to their preferential nitrogen nutrition.<sup id="cite_ref-535" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-535">[535]</a></sup> Usually, most of the nitrogen in soil is bound within organic compounds that make up the soil organic matter, and must be <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil_science)" title="Mineralization (soil science)">mineralized</a> to the ammonium or nitrate form before it can be taken up by most plants. However, symbiosis with <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycorrhizal fungi">mycorrhizal fungi</a> allow plants to get access to the organic nitrogen pool where and when mineral forms of nitrogen are poorly available.<sup id="cite_ref-536" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-536">[536]</a></sup> The total nitrogen content depends largely on the soil organic matter content, which in turn depends on texture, climate, vegetation, topography, age and soil management.<sup id="cite_ref-537" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-537">[537]</a></sup> Soil nitrogen typically decreases by 0.2 to 0.3% for every temperature increase by 10 °C. Usually, grassland soils contain more soil nitrogen than forest soils, because of a higher turnover rate of grassland organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-538" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-538">[538]</a></sup> Cultivation decreases soil nitrogen by exposing soil organic matter to decomposition by microorganisms,<sup id="cite_ref-539" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-539">[539]</a></sup> most losses being caused by <a href="/wiki/Denitrification" title="Denitrification">denitrification</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-540" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-540">[540]</a></sup> and soils under no-tillage maintain more soil nitrogen than tilled soils.<sup id="cite_ref-541" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-541">[541]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Micro-organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-organisms">micro-organisms</a> are able to metabolise organic matter and release ammonium in a process called <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil_science)" title="Mineralization (soil science)">mineralisation</a>. Others, called <a href="/wiki/Nitrifying_bacteria" title="Nitrifying bacteria">nitrifiers</a>, take free <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitrite" title="Nitrite">nitrite</a> as an intermediary step in the process of <a href="/wiki/Nitrification" title="Nitrification">nitrification</a>, and oxidise it to <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-fixing_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-fixing bacteria">Nitrogen-fixing bacteria</a> are capable of metabolising N<sub>2</sub> into the form of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> or related nitrogenous compounds in a process called <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>. Both ammonium and nitrate can be <a href="/wiki/Immobilization_(soil_science)" title="Immobilization (soil science)">immobilized</a> by their incorporation into microbial living cells, where it is temporarily sequestered in the form of <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>. Nitrate may be lost from the soil to the atmosphere when bacteria metabolise it to the gases NH<sub>3</sub>, N<sub>2</sub> and N<sub>2</sub>O, a process called <a href="/wiki/Denitrification" title="Denitrification">denitrification</a>. Nitrogen may also be <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(pedology)" title="Leaching (pedology)">leached</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">vadose zone</a> if in the form of nitrate, acting as a <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollutant</a> if it reaches the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> or <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">flows over land</a>, more especially in agricultural soils under high use of nutrient fertilizers.<sup id="cite_ref-542" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-542">[542]</a></sup> Ammonium may also be sequestered in 2:1 <a href="/wiki/Clay_minerals" title="Clay minerals">clay minerals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-543" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-543">[543]</a></sup> A small amount of nitrogen is added to soil by <a href="/wiki/Rainfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainfall">rainfall</a>, to the exception of wide areas of North America and West Europe where the excess use of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fertilizers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen fertilizers">nitrogen fertilizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manure" title="Manure">manure</a> has caused <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric pollution">atmospheric pollution</a> by ammonia emission, stemming in <a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">soil acidification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> of soils and <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic ecosystems">aquatic ecosystems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-544" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-544">[544]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-545" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-545">[545]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roy2006Chapter4_507-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roy2006Chapter4-507">[507]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison195785–94_546-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllison195785–94-546">[546]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroadbent1957152–55_547-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadbent1957152–55-547">[547]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977128–31_548-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977128–31-548">[548]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Gains">Gains</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Gains">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<p>In the process of <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralization (soil)">mineralisation</a>, microbes feed on organic matter, releasing ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>), ammonium (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>), nitrate (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) and other nutrients. As long as the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) of fresh residues in the soil is above 30:1, nitrogen will be in short supply for the nitrogen-rich microbal biomass (<a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_deficiency" title="Nitrogen deficiency">nitrogen deficiency</a>), and other bacteria will uptake ammonium and to a lesser extent nitrate and incorporate them into their cells in the <a href="/wiki/Immobilization_(soil_science)" title="Immobilization (soil science)">immobilization</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-549" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-549">[549]</a></sup> In that form the nitrogen is said to be <i>immobilised</i>. Later, when such bacteria die, they too are <i>mineralised</i> and some of the nitrogen is released as ammonium and nitrate. Predation of bacteria by soil fauna, in particular <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nematodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematodes">nematodes</a>, play a decisive role in the return of immobilized nitrogen to mineral forms.<sup id="cite_ref-550" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-550">[550]</a></sup> If the C/N of fresh residues is less than 15, mineral nitrogen is freed to the soil and directly available to plants.<sup id="cite_ref-551" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-551">[551]</a></sup> Bacteria may on average add 25 pounds (11 kg) nitrogen per acre, and in an unfertilised field, this is the most important source of usable nitrogen. In a soil with 5% organic matter perhaps 2 to 5% of that is released to the soil by such decomposition. It occurs fastest in warm, moist, well aerated soil.<sup id="cite_ref-552" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-552">[552]</a></sup> The mineralisation of 3% of the organic material of a soil that is 4% organic matter overall, would release 120 pounds (54 kg) of nitrogen as ammonium per acre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977129–30_553-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977129–30-553">[553]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<table class="wikitable sortable" style="border-spacing: 10px; margin:auto;">
|
||
<caption><b>Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio of Various Organic Materials</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977145_554-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977145-554">[554]</a></sup>
|
||
</caption>
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<th scope="col">Organic Material
|
||
</th>
|
||
<th scope="col">C:N Ratio
|
||
</th></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Alfalfa</td>
|
||
<td>13
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Bacteria</td>
|
||
<td>4
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Clover, green sweet</td>
|
||
<td>16
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Clover, mature sweet</td>
|
||
<td>23
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Fungi</td>
|
||
<td>9
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Forest litter</td>
|
||
<td>30
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Humus in warm cultivated soils</td>
|
||
<td>11
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Legume-grass hay</td>
|
||
<td>25
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Legumes (alfalfa or clover), mature</td>
|
||
<td>20
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Manure, cow</td>
|
||
<td>18
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Manure, horse</td>
|
||
<td>16–45
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Manure, human</td>
|
||
<td>10
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Oat straw</td>
|
||
<td>80
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Straw, cornstalks</td>
|
||
<td>90
|
||
</td></tr>
|
||
<tr>
|
||
<td>Sawdust</td>
|
||
<td>250
|
||
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhizobium" title="Rhizobium">rhizobium</a> bacteria convert N<sub>2</sub> to ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>), which is rapidly converted to <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>, parts of which are used by the rhizobia for the synthesis of their own biomass proteins, while other parts are transported to the <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> of the host plant.<sup id="cite_ref-555" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-555">[555]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rhizobia" title="Rhizobia">Rhizobia</a> share a <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic relationship</a> with host plants, since rhizobia supply the host with nitrogen and the host provides rhizobia with other nutrients and a safe environment. It is estimated that such symbiotic bacteria in the <a href="/wiki/Root_nodule" title="Root nodule">root nodules</a> of <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a> add 45 to 250 pounds of nitrogen per acre per year, which may be sufficient for the crop. Other, free-living nitrogen-fixing <a href="/wiki/Diazotroph" title="Diazotroph">diazotroph</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> live independently in the soil and release mineral forms of nitrogen when their dead bodies are converted by way of <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil_science)" title="Mineralization (soil science)">mineralization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977128–29_556-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977128–29-556">[556]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Some amount of usable nitrogen is fixed by <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-557" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-557">[557]</a></sup> Nitrogen dioxide is soluble in water to form <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> (HNO<sub>3</sub>) dissociating in H<sup>+</sup> and NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>. Ammonia, NH<sub>3</sub>, previously emitted from the soil, may fall with precipitation as nitric acid at a rate of about five pounds nitrogen per acre per year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison195787_558-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllison195787-558">[558]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Sequestration">Sequestration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Sequestration">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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||
<p>When bacteria feed on soluble forms of nitrogen (ammonium and nitrate), they temporarily sequester that nitrogen in their bodies in a process called <a href="/wiki/Immobilization_(soil_science)" title="Immobilization (soil science)">immobilization</a>. At a later time when those bacteria die, their nitrogen may be released as ammonium by the process of mineralization, sped up by predatory fauna.<sup id="cite_ref-559" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-559">[559]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Protein material is easily broken down, but the rate of its decomposition is slowed by its attachment to the crystalline structure of clay and when trapped between the clay layers<sup id="cite_ref-560" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-560">[560]</a></sup> or attached to rough clay surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-561" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-561">[561]</a></sup> The layers are small enough that bacteria cannot enter.<sup id="cite_ref-562" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-562">[562]</a></sup> Some organisms can exude extracellular enzymes that can act on the sequestered proteins. However, those enzymes too may be trapped on the clay crystals, resulting in a complex interaction between proteins, microbial enzymes and mineral surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-563" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-563">[563]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Ammonium fixation occurs mainly between the layers of 2:1 type clay minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Illite" title="Illite">illite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vermiculite" title="Vermiculite">vermiculite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a>, together with ions of similar <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic radius</a> and low <a href="/wiki/Hydration_energy" title="Hydration energy">hydration energy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, but a small proportion of ammonium is also fixed in the <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a> fraction.<sup id="cite_ref-564" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-564">[564]</a></sup> Only a small fraction of soil nitrogen is held this way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison195790_413-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllison195790-413">[413]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Losses">Losses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Losses">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
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||
<p>Usable nitrogen may be lost from soils when it is in the form of <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, as it is easily <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(chemistry)" title="Leaching (chemistry)">leached</a>, contrary to <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a> which is easily fixed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kramer2006_565-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramer2006-565">[565]</a></sup> Further losses of nitrogen occur by <a href="/wiki/Denitrification" title="Denitrification">denitrification</a>, the process whereby soil bacteria convert nitrate (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) to nitrogen gas, N<sub>2</sub> or N<sub>2</sub>O. This occurs when poor <a href="/wiki/Soil_aeration" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil aeration">soil aeration</a> limits free oxygen, forcing bacteria to use the oxygen in nitrate for their respiratory process. Denitrification increases when oxidisable organic material is available, as in <a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">organic farming</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kramer2006_565-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramer2006-565">[565]</a></sup> and when soils are warm and slightly acidic, as currently happening in tropical areas.<sup id="cite_ref-566" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-566">[566]</a></sup> Denitrification may vary throughout a soil as the aeration varies from place to place.<sup id="cite_ref-567" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-567">[567]</a></sup> Denitrification may cause the loss of 10 to 20 percent of the available nitrates within a day and when conditions are favourable to that process, losses of up to 60 percent of nitrate applied as fertiliser may occur.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977130_568-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977130-568">[568]</a></sup>
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Ammonia_volatilization_from_urea" title="Ammonia volatilization from urea">Ammonia volatilisation</a> occurs when ammonium reacts chemically with an alkaline soil, converting NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> to NH<sub>3</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-569" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-569">[569]</a></sup> The application of ammonium fertiliser to such a field can result in volatilisation losses of as much as 30 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977131_570-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977131-570">[570]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p>All kinds of nitrogen losses, whether by leaching or volatilization, are responsible for a large part of <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> pollution<sup id="cite_ref-571" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-571">[571]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>, with concomitant effects on <a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">soil acidification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-572" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-572">[572]</a></sup> a novel combination of environmental threats (acidity and excess nitrogen) to which extant organisms are badly adapted, causing severe biodiversity losses in natural ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-573" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-573">[573]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
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||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Phosphorus">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>After nitrogen, phosphorus is probably the element most likely to be deficient in soils, although it often turns to be the most deficient in tropical soils where the mineral pool is depleted under intense <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(pedology)" title="Leaching (pedology)">leaching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineral_weathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral weathering">mineral weathering</a> while, contrary to nitrogen, phosphorus reserves cannot be replenished from other sources.<sup id="cite_ref-574" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-574">[574]</a></sup> The soil mineral <a href="/wiki/Apatite" title="Apatite">apatite</a> is the most common mineral source of phosphorus, from which it can be extracted by microbial and root exudates,<sup id="cite_ref-575" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-575">[575]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-576" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-576">[576]</a></sup> with an important contribution of <a href="/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhizal" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbuscular mycorrhizal">arbuscular mycorrhizal</a> fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-577" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-577">[577]</a></sup> The most common form of organic phosphate is <a href="/wiki/Phytate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytate">phytate</a>, the principal storage form of phosphorus in many plant tissues. While there is on average 1000 lb per acre (1120 kg per hectare) of phosphorus in the soil, it is generally in the form of <a href="/wiki/Orthophosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthophosphate">orthophosphate</a> with low solubility, except when linked to ammonium or calcium, hence the use of <a href="/wiki/Diammonium_phosphate" title="Diammonium phosphate">diammonium phosphate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Monocalcium_phosphate" title="Monocalcium phosphate">monocalcium phosphate</a> as fertilizers.<sup id="cite_ref-578" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-578">[578]</a></sup> Total phosphorus is about 0.1 percent by weight of the soil, but only one percent of that is directly available to plants. Of the part available, more than half comes from the mineralisation of organic matter. Agricultural fields may need to be fertilised to make up for the phosphorus that has been removed in the crop.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOlsenFried195796_425-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlsenFried195796-425">[425]</a></sup>
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</p><p>When phosphorus does form solubilised ions of H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup>, if not taken up by plant roots they rapidly form insoluble phosphates of calcium or hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum. Phosphorus is largely immobile in the soil and is not leached but actually builds up in the surface layer if not cropped. The application of soluble fertilisers to soils may result in <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> deficiencies as <a href="/wiki/Zinc_phosphate" title="Zinc phosphate">zinc phosphates</a> form, but soil pH levels, partly depending on the form of phosphorus in the fertiliser, strongly interact with this effect, in some cases resulting in increased zinc availability.<sup id="cite_ref-579" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-579">[579]</a></sup> Lack of phosphorus may interfere with the normal opening of the plant leaf <a href="/wiki/Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a>, decreased <a href="/wiki/Stomatal_conductance" title="Stomatal conductance">stomatal conductance</a> resulting in decreased <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and respiration rates<sup id="cite_ref-580" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-580">[580]</a></sup> while decreased <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a> increases plant temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-581" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-581">[581]</a></sup> Phosphorus is most available when soil pH is 6.5 in mineral soils and 5.5 in organic soils.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977131_570-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977131-570">[570]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Potassium">Potassium</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Potassium">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>The amount of potassium in a soil may be as much as 80,000 lb per acre-foot, of which only 150 lb is available for plant growth. Common mineral sources of potassium are the mica <a href="/wiki/Biotite" title="Biotite">biotite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_feldspar" title="Potassium feldspar">potassium feldspar</a>, KAlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub>. <a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">Rhizosphere</a> bacteria, also called <a href="/wiki/Rhizobacteria" title="Rhizobacteria">rhizobacteria</a>, contribute through the production of <a href="/wiki/Organic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic acids">organic acids</a> to its solubilization.<sup id="cite_ref-582" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-582">[582]</a></sup> When solubilised, half will be held as exchangeable cations on clay while the other half is in the soil water solution. Potassium fixation often occurs when soils dry and the potassium is bonded between layers of illite clay. Under certain conditions, dependent on the soil texture, intensity of drying, and initial amount of exchangeable potassium, the fixed percentage may be as much as 90 percent within ten minutes. Potassium may be leached from soils low in clay.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977134–35_583-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977134–35-583">[583]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957101–04_584-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957101–04-584">[584]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Calcium">Calcium</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Calcium">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>Calcium is one percent by weight of soils and is generally available but may be low as it is soluble and can be leached. It is thus low in sandy and heavily leached soil or strongly acidic mineral soil. Calcium is supplied to the plant in the form of exchangeable ions and moderately soluble minerals. Calcium is more available on the soil colloids than is potassium because the common mineral calcite, CaCO<sub>3</sub>, is more soluble than potassium-bearing minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977135–36_585-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977135–36-585">[585]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Magnesium">Magnesium</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Magnesium">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>Magnesium is one of the dominant exchangeable cations in most soils (as are calcium and potassium). Primary minerals that weather to release magnesium include <a href="/wiki/Hornblende" title="Hornblende">hornblende</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotite" title="Biotite">biotite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vermiculite" title="Vermiculite">vermiculite</a>. Soil magnesium concentrations are generally sufficient for optimal plant growth, but highly weathered and sandy soils may be magnesium deficient due to leaching by heavy precipitation.<sup id="cite_ref-Roy2006Chapter4_507-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roy2006Chapter4-507">[507]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977136_586-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977136-586">[586]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sulfur">Sulfur</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Sulfur">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>Most sulfur is made available to plants, like phosphorus, by its release from decomposing organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977136_586-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977136-586">[586]</a></sup> Deficiencies may exist in some soils (especially sandy soils) and if cropped, sulfur needs to be added. The application of large quantities of nitrogen to fields that have marginal amounts of sulfur may cause sulfur deficiency in the rapidly growing plants by the plant's growth outpacing the supply of sulfur. A 15-ton crop of onions uses up to 19 lb of sulfur and 4 tons of alfalfa uses 15 lb per acre. Sulfur abundance varies with depth. In a sample of soils in Ohio, United States, the sulfur abundance varied with depths, 0–6 inches, 6–12 inches, 12–18 inches, 18–24 inches in the amounts: 1056, 830, 686, 528 lb per acre respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJordanReisenauer1957107_587-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordanReisenauer1957107-587">[587]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Micronutrients">Micronutrients</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Micronutrients">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>The micronutrients essential in plant life, in their order of importance, include <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmesBrown1957111_588-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesBrown1957111-588">[588]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherman1957135_589-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherman1957135-589">[589]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeatzJurinak1957115_590-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeatzJurinak1957115-590">[590]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReuther1957128_591-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuther1957128-591">[591]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussel1957121_592-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussel1957121-592">[592]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoutJohnson1957146_593-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoutJohnson1957146-593">[593]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoutJohnson1957141_594-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoutJohnson1957141-594">[594]</a></sup> The term refers to plants' needs, not to their abundance in soil. They are required in very small amounts but are essential to plant health in that most are required parts of some enzyme system which speeds up plants' metabolisms. They are generally available in the mineral component of the soil, but the heavy application of phosphates can cause a deficiency in zinc and iron by the formation of insoluble zinc and iron phosphates. Iron deficiency may also result from excessive amounts of heavy metals or calcium minerals (lime) in the soil. Excess amounts of soluble boron, molybdenum and chloride are toxic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977136–37_595-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977136–37-595">[595]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoutJohnson1957107_596-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoutJohnson1957107-596">[596]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Non-essential_nutrients">Non-essential nutrients</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Non-essential nutrients">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>Nutrients which enhance the health but whose deficiency does not stop the life cycle of plants include: <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-597" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-597">[597]</a></sup> As their importance are evaluated they may be added to the list of essential plant nutrients.
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</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Soil_organic_matter">Soil organic matter</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Soil organic matter">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">Soil organic matter</a></div>
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<p>Soil organic matter is made up of <a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds">organic compounds</a> and includes plant, animal and microbial material, both living and dead. A typical soil has a biomass composition of 70% microorganisms, 22% macrofauna, and 8% roots. The living component of an acre of soil may include 900 lb of earthworms, 2400 lb of fungi, 1500 lb of bacteria, 133 lb of protozoa and 890 lb of arthropods and algae.<sup id="cite_ref-598" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-598">[598]</a></sup>
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</p><p>A small part of the organic matter consists of the living cells such as bacteria, molds, and actinomycetes that work to break down the dead organic matter. Were it not for the action of these micro-organisms, the entire carbon dioxide part of the atmosphere would be sequestered as organic matter in the soil.
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</p><p>Chemically, organic matter is classed as follows:
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</p>
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<ol><li>Polysaccharides
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<ol><li>cellulose</li>
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<li>hemicellulose</li>
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<li>starch</li>
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<li>pectin</li></ol></li>
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<li>Lignins</li>
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<li>Proteins</li></ol>
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<p>Most living things in soils, including plants, insects, bacteria, and fungi, are dependent on organic matter for nutrients and/or energy. Soils have organic compounds in varying degrees of decomposition which rate is dependent on the temperature, soil moisture, and aeration. Bacteria and fungi feed on the raw organic matter, which are fed upon by amoebas, which in turn are fed upon by nematodes and arthropods. Organic matter holds soils open, allowing the infiltration of air and water, and may hold as much as twice its weight in water. Many soils, including desert and rocky-gravel soils, have little or no organic matter. Soils that are all organic matter, such as <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Histosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Histosols">histosols</a>), are infertile.<sup id="cite_ref-Foth1984_599-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foth1984-599">[599]</a></sup> In its earliest stage of decomposition, the original organic material is often called raw organic matter. The final stage of decomposition is called humus.
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</p><p>In grassland, much of the organic matter added to the soil is from the deep, fibrous, grass root systems. By contrast, tree leaves falling on the forest floor are the principal source of soil organic matter in the forest. Another difference is the frequent occurrence in the grasslands of fires that destroy large amounts of aboveground material but stimulate even greater contributions from roots. Also, the much greater acidity under any forests inhibits the action of certain soil organisms that otherwise would mix much of the surface litter into the mineral soil. As a result, the soils under grasslands generally develop a thicker A horizon with a deeper distribution of organic matter than in comparable soils under forests, which characteristically store most of their organic matter in the forest floor (O horizon) and thin A horizon.
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Humus">Humus</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Humus">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">Humus</a> refers to organic matter that has been decomposed by soil flora and fauna to the point where it is resistant to further breakdown. Humus usually constitutes only five percent of the soil or less by volume, but it is an essential source of nutrients and adds important textural qualities crucial to <a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">soil health</a> and plant growth. Humus also hold bits of undecomposed organic matter which feed arthropods and worms which further improve the soil. The end product, humus, is soluble in water and forms a weak acid that can attack silicate minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-600" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-600">[600]</a></sup> Humus is a colloid with a high cation and anion exchange capacity that on a dry weight basis is many times greater than that of clay colloids. It also acts as a buffer, like clay, against changes in pH and soil moisture.
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Humic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Humic acid">Humic acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fulvic_acid" title="Fulvic acid">fulvic acids</a>, which begin as raw organic matter, are important constituents of humus. After the death of plants and animals, microbes begin to feed on the residues, resulting finally in the formation of humus. With decomposition, there is a reduction of water-soluble constituents, <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicellulose</a>, and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. As the residues break down, only stable molecules made of aromatic carbon rings, oxygen and hydrogen remain in the form of <a href="/wiki/Humin" title="Humin">humin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> and lignin complexes collectively called humus. While the structure of humus has few nutrients, it is able to attract and hold cation and anion nutrients by weak bonds that can be released into the soil solution in response to changes in soil pH.
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</p><p>Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil. It also reacts with amino acids, which further increases its resistance to decomposition, including enzymatic decomposition by microbes. <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">waxes</a> from plant matter have some resistance to decomposition and persist in soils for a while. Clay soils often have higher organic contents that persist longer than soils without clay as the organic molecules adhere to and are stabilised by the clay. Proteins normally decompose readily, but when bound to clay particles, they become more resistant to decomposition. Clay particles also absorb the enzymes exuded by microbes which would normally break down proteins. The addition of organic matter to clay soils can render that organic matter and any added nutrients inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years. High soil <a href="/wiki/Tannin" title="Tannin">tannin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polyphenol" title="Polyphenol">polyphenol</a>) content can cause nitrogen to be sequestered in proteins or cause nitrogen immobilisation.<sup id="cite_ref-Verkaik2006_601-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verkaik2006-601">[601]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fierer2001_602-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fierer2001-602">[602]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the type of base soil. Both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present. Soils with humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen. Raw organic matter, as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus, is a vital component affecting <a href="/wiki/Fertile_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertile soil">soil fertility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Foth1984_599-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foth1984-599">[599]</a></sup> Humus also absorbs water, and expands and shrinks between dry and wet states, increasing soil <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porosity</a>. Humus is less stable than the soil's mineral constituents, as it is reduced by microbial decomposition, and over time its concentration diminshes without the addition of new organic matter. However, humus may persist over centuries if not millennia.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Climatological_influence">Climatological influence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Climatological influence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>The production, accumulation and degradation of organic matter are greatly dependent on climate. Temperature, soil moisture and <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> are the major factors affecting the accumulation of organic matter in soils. Organic matter tends to accumulate under wet or cold conditions where <a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">decomposer</a> activity is impeded by low temperature<sup id="cite_ref-Wagai2008_603-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagai2008-603">[603]</a></sup> or excess moisture which results in anaerobic conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Minayeva2008_604-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Minayeva2008-604">[604]</a></sup> Conversely, excessive rain and high temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of plant nutrients; forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant matter to maintain their productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanchez1976_605-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanchez1976-605">[605]</a></sup> Excessive slope may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Plant_residue">Plant residue</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Plant residue">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px">
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<div style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black">
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<div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 791.58150883059px; border-left-color:aqua"></div>
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||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:aqua"></div>
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<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:aqua"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 389.47428549299px; border-left-color:fuchsia"></div>
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<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:fuchsia"></div>
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<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:fuchsia"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 157.57478599687px; border-left-color:yellow"></div>
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<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:yellow"></div>
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<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:yellow"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 54.975465219277px; border-left-color:blue"></div>
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<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:blue"></div>
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<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:blue"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:80.901699437495px 58.778525229247px 0 0; border-top-color:green"></div>
|
||
<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:green"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:0; border-width:0 307.76835371753px 100px 0; border-right-color:red"></div>
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<div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;right:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 100px 0;border-color:red"></div>
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||
</div>
|
||
<div class="thumbcaption">
|
||
<p>Typical types and percentages of plant residue components
|
||
</p>
|
||
<div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:red; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Cellulose (45%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:green; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Lignin (20%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:blue; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Hemicellulose (18%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:yellow; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Protein (8%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:fuchsia; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Sugars and starches (5%)</div><div class="legend" style="-webkit-column-break-inside: avoid;page-break-inside: avoid;break-inside: avoid-column"><span class="legend-color" style="display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color:aqua; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"> </span> Fats and waxes (2%)</div>
|
||
</div>
|
||
</div></div>
|
||
<p><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicellulose</a> undergo fast decomposition by fungi and bacteria, with a half-life of 12–18 days in a temperate climate.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul1997_606-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul1997-606">[606]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wood-decay_fungus" title="Wood-decay fungus">Brown rot fungi</a> can decompose the cellulose and hemicellulose, leaving the <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">phenolic compounds</a> behind. <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a>, which is an energy storage system for plants, undergoes fast decomposition by bacteria and fungi. Lignin consists of polymers composed of 500 to 600 units with a highly branched, amorphous structure. Lignin undergoes very slow decomposition, mainly by <a href="/wiki/White_rot" class="mw-redirect" title="White rot">white rot</a> fungi and <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinomycetes">actinomycetes</a>; its half-life under temperate conditions is about six months.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul1997_606-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul1997-606">[606]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Horizons">Horizons</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Horizons">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">Soil horizon</a></div>
|
||
<p>A horizontal layer of the soil, whose physical features, composition and age are distinct from those above and beneath, is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">soil horizon</a>. The naming of a horizon is based on the type of material of which it is composed. Those materials reflect the duration of specific processes of soil formation. They are labelled using a shorthand notation of letters and numbers<sup id="cite_ref-Retallack1990_607-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retallack1990-607">[607]</a></sup> which describe the horizon in terms of its colour, size, texture, structure, consistency, root quantity, pH, voids, boundary characteristics and presence of nodules or concretions.<sup id="cite_ref-Buol1990_608-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buol1990-608">[608]</a></sup> No soil profile has all the major horizons. Some may have only one horizon.
|
||
</p><p>The exposure of parent material to favourable conditions produces mineral soils that are marginally suitable for plant growth. That growth often results in the accumulation of organic residues. The accumulated organic layer called the <a href="/wiki/Forest_floor" title="Forest floor">O horizon</a> produces a more active soil due to the effect of the organisms that live within it. Organisms colonise and break down organic materials, making available nutrients upon which other plants and animals can live. After sufficient time, humus moves downward and is deposited in a distinctive organic surface layer called the A horizon.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Classification">Classification</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></div>
|
||
<p>Soil is classified into categories in order to understand relationships between different soils and to determine the suitability of a soil in a particular region. One of the first classification systems was developed by Russian scientist <a href="/wiki/Dokuchaev" class="mw-redirect" title="Dokuchaev">Dokuchaev</a> around 1880. It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers, and developed into the system commonly used until the 1960s. It was based on the idea that soils have a particular morphology based on the materials and factors that form them. In the 1960s, a different classification system began to emerge which focused on <a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">soil morphology</a> instead of parental materials and soil-forming factors. Since then it has undergone further modifications. The <a href="/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources" title="World Reference Base for Soil Resources">World Reference Base for Soil Resources</a> (WRB)<sup id="cite_ref-IUSS2014_609-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUSS2014-609">[609]</a></sup> aims to establish an international reference base for soil classification.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Systems">Systems</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Systems">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_classification#Systems" title="Soil classification">Soil classification § Systems</a></div>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Australia">Australia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Australian_Soil_Classification" title="Australian Soil Classification">Australian Soil Classification</a></div>
|
||
<p>There are fourteen soil orders at the top level of the Australian Soil Classification. They are: Anthroposols, Organosols, Podosols, Vertosols, Hydrosols, Kurosols, Sodosols, Chromosols, Calcarosols, Ferrosols, Dermosols, Kandosols, Rudosols and Tenosols.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="European_Union">European Union</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: European Union">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<p>The EU's soil taxonomy is based on a new standard soil classification in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources produced by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SEU_610-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEU-610">[610]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States">United States</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy#Orders" title="USDA soil taxonomy">USDA soil taxonomy § Orders</a></div>
|
||
<p>A taxonomy is an arrangement in a systematic manner; the <a href="/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="USDA soil taxonomy">USDA soil taxonomy</a> has six levels of classification. They are, from most general to specific: order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family and series. Soil properties that can be measured quantitatively are used in this classification system – they include: depth, moisture, temperature, texture, structure, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, clay mineralogy, organic matter content and salt content. There are 12 soil orders (the top hierarchical level) in soil taxonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-611" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-611">[611]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977411–32_612-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977411–32-612">[612]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Uses">Uses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Uses">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<p>Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the anchor and primary nutrient base for plants. The types of soil and available moisture determine the species of plants that can be cultivated. However, as demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Aeroponics" title="Aeroponics">aeroponics</a>, soil material is not an absolute essential for agriculture.
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||
</p><p>Soil material is also a critical component in the mining, construction and landscape development industries.<sup id="cite_ref-613" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-613">[613]</a></sup> Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects. The movement of massive volumes of soil can be involved in <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">surface mining</a>, road building and dam construction. <a href="/wiki/Earth_sheltering" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth sheltering">Earth sheltering</a> is the architectural practice of using soil for external <a href="/wiki/Thermal_mass" title="Thermal mass">thermal mass</a> against building walls. Many <a href="/wiki/Building_material" title="Building material">building materials</a> are soil based.
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||
</p><p>Soil resources are critical to the environment, as well as to food and fibre production, producing 98.8% of food consumed by humans.<sup id="cite_ref-614" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-614">[614]</a></sup> Soil provides minerals and water to plants. Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and drought. Soil cleans water as it percolates through it. Soil is the habitat for many organisms: the major part of known and unknown <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> is in the soil, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Invertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Invertebrates">invertebrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Earthworm" title="Earthworm">earthworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woodlice" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodlice">woodlice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millipede" title="Millipede">millipedes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centipede" title="Centipede">centipedes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slug" title="Slug">slugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Springtail" title="Springtail">springtails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enchytraeidae" title="Enchytraeidae">enchytraeids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, fungi and <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>; and most organisms living above ground have part of them (<a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a>) or spend part of their <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects">insects</a>) below-ground. Above-ground and below-ground biodiversities are tightly interconnected,<sup id="cite_ref-Ponge2003_615-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ponge2003-615">[615]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-De_Deyn2005_616-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Deyn2005-616">[616]</a></sup> making soil protection of paramount importance for any restoration or conservation plan.
|
||
</p><p>The biological component of soil is an extremely important carbon sink since about 57% of the biotic content is carbon. Even on desert crusts, cyanobacteria, lichens and mosses capture and sequester a significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis. Poor farming and grazing methods have degraded soils and released much of this sequestered carbon to the atmosphere. Restoring the world's soils could offset the effect of increases in <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> emissions and slow global warming, while improving crop yields and reducing water needs.<sup id="cite_ref-617" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-617">[617]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-618" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-618">[618]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-619" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-619">[619]</a></sup>
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||
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> often has a soil component. <a href="/wiki/Septic_drain_field" title="Septic drain field">Septic drain fields</a> treat <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic tank</a> effluent using aerobic soil processes. <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfills</a> use soil for <a href="/wiki/Daily_cover" title="Daily cover">daily cover</a>. Land application of waste water relies on soil biology to aerobically treat <a href="/wiki/Biochemical_oxygen_demand" title="Biochemical oxygen demand">BOD</a>.
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||
</p><p>Organic soils, especially <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>, serve as a significant fuel resource; but wide areas of peat production, such as <a href="/wiki/Sphagnum" title="Sphagnum">sphagnum</a> <a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">bogs</a>, are now protected because of patrimonial interest.
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||
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Geophagy" class="mw-redirect" title="Geophagy">Geophagy</a> is the practice of eating soil-like substances. Both animals and human cultures occasionally consume soil for medicinal, recreational, or religious purposes. It has been shown that some <a href="/wiki/Monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Monkeys">monkeys</a> consume soil, together with their preferred food (tree <a href="/wiki/Foliage" class="mw-redirect" title="Foliage">foliage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fruits" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruits">fruits</a>), in order to alleviate <a href="/wiki/Tannin" title="Tannin">tannin</a> toxicity.<sup id="cite_ref-Setz1999_620-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Setz1999-620">[620]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry. Rain water and pooled water from ponds, lakes and rivers percolate through the soil horizons and the upper <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">rock strata</a>, thus becoming groundwater. <a href="/wiki/Pest_(organism)" title="Pest (organism)">Pests</a> (<a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">pollutants</a>, such as persistent organic pollutants (<a href="/wiki/Chlorinated" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorinated">chlorinated</a> <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyls" class="mw-redirect" title="Polychlorinated biphenyls">polychlorinated biphenyls</a>), oils (<a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a>), heavy metals (<a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>), and excess nutrients (<a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphates</a>) are filtered out by the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Kohne2009_621-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kohne2009-621">[621]</a></sup> Soil organisms <a href="/wiki/Metabolise" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolise">metabolise</a> them or immobilise them in their <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> and necromass,<sup id="cite_ref-Diplock2009_622-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diplock2009-622">[622]</a></sup> thereby incorporating them into stable humus.<sup id="cite_ref-Moeckel2008_623-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moeckel2008-623">[623]</a></sup> The physical integrity of soil is also a prerequisite for avoiding landslides in rugged landscapes.<sup id="cite_ref-Rezaei2009_624-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rezaei2009-624">[624]</a></sup>
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||
</p>
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||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Degradation">Degradation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Degradation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a><sup id="cite_ref-625" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-625">[625]</a></sup> refers to a human-induced or natural process which impairs the capacity of <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a> to function. Soils degradation involves the <a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">acidification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">contamination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">salination</a>.
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">Soil acidification</a> is beneficial in the case of alkaline soils, but it degrades land when it lowers crop productivity and increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion. Soils are often initially acid because their <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent materials</a> were acid and initially low in the <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">basic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cations</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>). Acidification occurs when these elements are leached from the soil profile by rainfall or by the harvesting of forest or agricultural crops. Soil acidification is accelerated by the use of acid-forming <a href="/wiki/Nitrogenous_fertilizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogenous fertilizer">nitrogenous fertilizers</a> and by the effects of <a href="/wiki/Acid_precipitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid precipitation">acid precipitation</a>.
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil contamination</a> at low levels is often within a soil's capacity to treat and assimilate waste material. Soil biota can treat waste by transforming it; soil colloids can adsorb the waste material. Many waste treatment processes rely on this treatment capacity. Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function. Derelict soils occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a degree that the land cannot be used safely or productively. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a> of derelict soil uses principles of geology, physics, chemistry and biology to degrade, attenuate, isolate or remove soil contaminants to restore <a href="/wiki/Soil_functions" title="Soil functions">soil functions</a> and values. Techniques include leaching, air sparging, chemical amendments, <a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">phytoremediation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a> and natural degradation. An example of diffuse pollution with contaminants is the copper distribution in agricultural soils mainly due to fungicide applications in vineyards and other permanent crops.<sup id="cite_ref-626" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-626">[626]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_erosion,_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg/220px-Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg/330px-Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg/440px-Soil_erosion%2C_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="506" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_erosion,_Southfield_-_geograph.org.uk_-_367917.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Desertification</div></div></div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a> is an environmental process of ecosystem degradation in arid and semi-arid regions, often caused by human activity. It is a common misconception that <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a> cause desertification. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands. Well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Soil management tools include maintaining soil nutrient and organic matter levels, reduced tillage and increased cover. These practices help to control erosion and maintain productivity during periods when moisture is available. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands accelerates desertification.
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</p>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG/170px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG/255px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG/340px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County%2C_Iowa.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2100" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Erosion control</div></div></div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a> of soil is caused by <a href="/wiki/Water_erosion#Rainfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Water erosion">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_erosion#Wind_erosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Water erosion">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_erosion#Glaciers" class="mw-redirect" title="Water erosion">ice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Water_erosion#Mass_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Water erosion">movement in response to gravity</a>. More than one kind of erosion can occur simultaneously. Erosion is distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a>, since erosion also transports eroded soil away from its place of origin (soil in transit may be described as <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a>). Erosion is an intrinsic natural process, but in many places it is greatly increased by human activity, especially poor <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a> practices. These include <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> activities which leave the soil bare during times of heavy rain or strong winds, <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, and improper <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a> activity. Improved management can limit erosion. <a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation#Erosion_prevention" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation techniques</a> which are employed include changes of land use (such as replacing erosion-prone <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crops</a> with <a href="/wiki/Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">grass</a> or other soil-binding plants), changes to the timing or type of agricultural operations, <a href="/wiki/Terrace_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace (agriculture)">terrace</a> building, use of erosion-suppressing cover materials (including <a href="/wiki/Cover_crop#Water_management" title="Cover crop">cover crops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_bioengineering#Technical_functions" title="Soil bioengineering">other plants</a>), limiting disturbance during construction, and avoiding construction during erosion-prone periods.
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</p><p>A serious and long-running water erosion problem occurs in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, on the middle reaches of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> and the upper reaches of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>. From the Yellow River, over 1.6 billion tons of sediment flow each year into the ocean. The <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> originates primarily from water erosion (gully erosion) in the <a href="/wiki/Loess_Plateau" title="Loess Plateau">Loess Plateau</a> region of northwest China.
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</p><p>Soil piping is a particular form of soil erosion that occurs below the soil surface. It causes levee and dam failure, as well as <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sink hole</a> formation. Turbulent flow removes soil starting at the mouth of the seep flow and the subsoil erosion advances up-gradient.<sup id="cite_ref-627" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-627">[627]</a></sup> The term sand boil is used to describe the appearance of the discharging end of an active soil pipe.<sup id="cite_ref-628" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-628">[628]</a></sup>
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</p><p><a href="/wiki/Soil_salination" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil salination">Soil salination</a> is the accumulation of free <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salts</a> to such an extent that it leads to degradation of the agricultural value of soils and vegetation. Consequences include corrosion damage, reduced plant growth, erosion due to loss of plant cover and soil structure, and water quality problems due to sedimentation. Salination occurs due to a combination of natural and human-caused processes. Arid conditions favour salt accumulation. This is especially apparent when soil parent material is saline. <a href="/wiki/Surface_irrigation" title="Surface irrigation">Irrigation</a> of arid lands is especially problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-629" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-629">[629]</a></sup> All irrigation water has some level of salinity. Irrigation, especially when it involves leakage from canals and overirrigation in the field, often raises the underlying <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>. Rapid salination occurs when the land surface is within the <a href="/wiki/Capillary_fringe" title="Capillary fringe">capillary fringe</a> of saline groundwater. <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">Soil salinity control</a> involves <a href="/wiki/Watertable_control" title="Watertable control">watertable control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leaching_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaching model">flushing</a> with higher levels of applied water in combination with <a href="/wiki/Tile_drainage" title="Tile drainage">tile drainage</a> or another form of <a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(agriculture)" title="Drainage system (agriculture)">subsurface drainage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-630" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-630">[630]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Waterlog_631-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waterlog-631">[631]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Reclamation">Reclamation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Reclamation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>Soils which contain high levels of particular clays, such as <a href="/wiki/Smectite" class="mw-redirect" title="Smectite">smectites</a>, are often very fertile. For example, the smectite-rich clays of Thailand's <a href="/wiki/Central_Thailand" title="Central Thailand">Central Plains</a> are among the most productive in the world.
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</p><p>Many farmers in tropical areas, however, struggle to retain organic matter in the soils they work. In recent years, for example, productivity has declined in the low-clay soils of northern Thailand. Farmers initially responded by adding organic matter from termite mounds, but this was unsustainable in the long-term. Scientists experimented with adding <a href="/wiki/Bentonite" title="Bentonite">bentonite</a>, one of the smectite family of clays, to the soil. In field trials, conducted by scientists from the <a href="/wiki/International_Water_Management_Institute" title="International Water Management Institute">International Water Management Institute</a> in cooperation with <a href="/wiki/Khon_Kaen_University" title="Khon Kaen University">Khon Kaen University</a> and local farmers, this had the effect of helping retain water and nutrients. Supplementing the farmer's usual practice with a single application of 200 kg bentonite per rai (6.26 rai = 1 hectare) resulted in an average yield increase of 73%. More work showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years.
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</p><p>In 2008, three years after the initial trials, <a href="/wiki/International_Water_Management_Institute" title="International Water Management Institute">IWMI</a> scientists conducted a survey among 250 farmers in northeast Thailand, half of whom had applied bentonite to their fields. The average improvement for those using the clay addition was 18% higher than for non-clay users. Using the clay had enabled some farmers to switch to growing vegetables, which need more fertile soil. This helped to increase their income. The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast Thailand and 400 in Cambodia had adopted the use of clays, and that a further 20,000 farmers were introduced to the new technique.<sup id="cite_ref-Water_Management_Institute2010_632-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Water_Management_Institute2010-632">[632]</a></sup>
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</p><p>If the soil is too high in clay, adding gypsum, washed river sand and organic matter will balance the composition. Adding organic matter (like <a href="/wiki/Ramial_chipped_wood" title="Ramial chipped wood">ramial chipped wood</a> for instance) to soil which is depleted in nutrients and too high in sand will boost its quality.<sup id="cite_ref-633" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-633">[633]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_sulfate_soil" title="Acid sulfate soil">Acid sulfate soil</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Agrophysics" title="Agrophysics">Agrophysics</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline soil">Alkaline soil</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">Crust</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Geoponic" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoponic">Geoponic</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Factors_affecting_permeability_of_soils" title="Factors affecting permeability of soils">Factors affecting permeability of soils</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_soil-related_articles" title="Index of soil-related articles">Index of soil-related articles</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_matter_in_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral matter in plants">Mineral matter in plants</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_soil_carbon_storage" title="Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage">Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Red_Mediterranean_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Mediterranean soil">Red Mediterranean soil</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Saline_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Saline soil">Saline soil</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Shrink-swell_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrink-swell capacity">Shrink-swell capacity</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_management" title="Soil management">Soil management</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_zoology" title="Soil zoology">Soil zoology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/World_Soil_Museum" title="World Soil Museum">World Soil Museum</a></li></ul>
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</div>
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></td>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Soil" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Soil">Soil</a></b></i></td></tr>
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soils" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Soils"><span style="">Soils</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<dl><dt>Citations</dt></dl>
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<li id="cite_note-ches-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ches_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Chesworth, Ward, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedias.biz/dw/Encyclopedia%20of%20Soil%20Science.pdf"><i>Encyclopedia of soil science</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3994-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3994-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-3994-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180905002957/http://www.encyclopedias.biz/dw/Encyclopedia%20of%20Soil%20Science.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 5 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+soil+science&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3994-2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedias.biz%2Fdw%2FEncyclopedia%2520of%2520Soil%2520Science.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r935243608">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-pedo-" class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=pedo-">"pedo-"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=pedo-&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foed.com%2Fsearch%3FsearchType%3Ddictionary%26q%3Dpedo-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:90%; color:#555">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span>, from the ancient Greek πέδον "ground", "earth".</span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Voroney, R. Paul & Heck, Richard J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csmi.issas.ac.cn/uploadfiles/Soil%20Microbiology,%20Ecology%20&%20Biochemistry.pdf">"The soil habitat"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Paul, Eldor A. (ed.). <i>Soil microbiology, ecology and biochemistry</i> (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. pp. 25–49. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-047514-1.50006-8">10.1016/B978-0-08-047514-1.50006-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-546807-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-546807-7"><bdi>978-0-12-546807-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180710102532/http://csmi.issas.ac.cn/uploadfiles/Soil%20Microbiology%2C%20Ecology%20%26%20Biochemistry.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+soil+habitat&rft.btitle=Soil+microbiology%2C+ecology+and+biochemistry&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=25-49&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-08-047514-1.50006-8&rft.isbn=978-0-12-546807-7&rft.aulast=Voroney&rft.aufirst=R.+Paul&rft.au=Heck%2C+Richard+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsmi.issas.ac.cn%2Fuploadfiles%2FSoil%2520Microbiology%2C%2520Ecology%2520%26%2520Biochemistry.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Danoff-Burg, James A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/projects/seeu/dr/restrict/modules/module10.html">"The terrestrial influence: geology and soils"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Earth_Institute_Center_for_Environmental_Sustainability" title="Earth Institute Center for Environmental Sustainability">Earth Institute Center for Environmental Sustainability</a></i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Earth+Institute+Center+for+Environmental+Sustainability&rft.atitle=The+terrestrial+influence%3A+geology+and+soils&rft.aulast=Danoff-Burg&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccnmtl.columbia.edu%2Fprojects%2Fseeu%2Fdr%2Frestrict%2Fmodules%2Fmodule10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Taylor, Sterling A. & Ashcroft, Gaylen L. (1972). <i>Physical edaphology: the physics of irrigated and nonirrigated soils</i>. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0818-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0818-6"><bdi>978-0-7167-0818-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+edaphology%3A+the+physics+of+irrigated+and+nonirrigated+soils&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-0818-6&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Sterling+A.&rft.au=Ashcroft%2C+Gaylen+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">McCarthy, David F. (2006). <i>Essentials of soil mechanics and foundations: basic geotechnics</i> (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-114560-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-114560-3"><bdi>978-0-13-114560-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+soil+mechanics+and+foundations%3A+basic+geotechnics&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-13-114560-3&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=David+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Gilluly1975-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gilluly1975_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gilluly1975_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/James_Gilluly" title="James Gilluly">Gilluly, James</a>; Waters, Aaron Clement & Woodford, Alfred Oswald (1975). <i>Principles of geology</i> (4th ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0269-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0269-6"><bdi>978-0-7167-0269-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+geology&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-0269-6&rft.aulast=Gilluly&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Waters%2C+Aaron+Clement&rft.au=Woodford%2C+Alfred+Oswald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Ponge, Jean-François (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276090499">"The soil as an ecosystem"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i>Biology and Fertility of Soils</i>. <b>51</b> (6): 645–48. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00374-015-1016-1">10.1007/s00374-015-1016-1</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+and+Fertility+of+Soils&rft.atitle=The+soil+as+an+ecosystem&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=645-48&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00374-015-1016-1&rft.aulast=Ponge&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F276090499&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Yu2015-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yu2015_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yu2015_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Yu, Charley; Kamboj, Sunita; Wang, Cheng & Cheng, Jing-Jy (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://resrad.evs.anl.gov/docs/data_collection.pdf">"Data collection handbook to support modeling impacts of radioactive material in soil and building structures"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a></i>. pp. 13–21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180804105951/http://resrad.evs.anl.gov/docs/data_collection.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 4 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Argonne+National+Laboratory&rft.atitle=Data+collection+handbook+to+support+modeling+impacts+of+radioactive+material+in+soil+and+building+structures&rft.pages=13-21&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=Charley&rft.au=Kamboj%2C+Sunita&rft.au=Wang%2C+Cheng&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Jing-Jy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresrad.evs.anl.gov%2Fdocs%2Fdata_collection.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Buol-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buol_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buol_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Buol, Stanley W.; Southard, Randal J.; Graham, Robert C. & McDaniel, Paul A. (2011). <i>Soil genesis and classification</i> (7th ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-96060-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-96060-8"><bdi>978-0-470-96060-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soil+genesis+and+classification&rft.place=Ames%2C+Iowa&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-470-96060-8&rft.aulast=Buol&rft.aufirst=Stanley+W.&rft.au=Southard%2C+Randal+J.&rft.au=Graham%2C+Robert+C.&rft.au=McDaniel%2C+Paul+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Retallack, Gregory J.; Krinsley, David H; Fischer, Robert; Razink, Joshua J. & Langworthy, Kurt A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/d/3735/files/2013/07/Retallack-et-al.-2016-Farrel-1gt7uft.pdf">"Archean coastal-plain paleosols and life on land"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Gondwana_Research" title="Gondwana Research">Gondwana Research</a></i>. <b>40</b>: 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016GondR..40....1R">2016GondR..40....1R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gr.2016.08.003">10.1016/j.gr.2016.08.003</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181113075710/https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/d/3735/files/2013/07/Retallack-et-al.-2016-Farrel-1gt7uft.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 13 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gondwana+Research&rft.atitle=Archean+coastal-plain+paleosols+and+life+on+land&rft.volume=40&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gr.2016.08.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016GondR..40....1R&rft.aulast=Retallack&rft.aufirst=Gregory+J.&rft.au=Krinsley%2C+David+H&rft.au=Fischer%2C+Robert&rft.au=Razink%2C+Joshua+J.&rft.au=Langworthy%2C+Kurt+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com%2Fblogs.uoregon.edu%2Fdist%2Fd%2F3735%2Ffiles%2F2013%2F07%2FRetallack-et-al.-2016-Farrel-1gt7uft.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181027045042/http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/glossary/e/index.html">"Glossary of Terms in Soil Science"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_and_Agri-Food_Canada" title="Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada">Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/glossary/e/index.html">the original</a> on 27 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Agriculture+and+Agri-Food+Canada&rft.atitle=Glossary+of+Terms+in+Soil+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsis.agr.gc.ca%2Fcansis%2Fglossary%2Fe%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Amundson, Ronald. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://natres.psu.ac.th/Link/SoilCongress/bdd/symp45/75-t.pdf">"Soil preservation and the future of pedology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Faculty of Natural Resources</i>. Songkhla, Thailand: Prince of Songkla University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140029/http://natres.psu.ac.th/Link/SoilCongress/bdd/symp45/75-t.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 12 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Faculty+of+Natural+Resources&rft.atitle=Soil+preservation+and+the+future+of+pedology&rft.aulast=Amundson&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnatres.psu.ac.th%2FLink%2FSoilCongress%2Fbdd%2Fsymp45%2F75-t.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Küppers, Michael; Vincent, Jean-Baptiste. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mps.mpg.de/phd/planetary-interiors-and-surfaces-2011-part-05">"Impacts and formation of regolith"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Solar_System_Research" title="Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research">Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180804200824/https://www.mps.mpg.de/phd/planetary-interiors-and-surfaces-2011-part-05">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Max+Planck+Institute+for+Solar+System+Research&rft.atitle=Impacts+and+formation+of+regolith&rft.aulast=K%C3%BCppers&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Vincent%2C+Jean-Baptiste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mps.mpg.de%2Fphd%2Fplanetary-interiors-and-surfaces-2011-part-05&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.soils.org/files/about-soils/soils-overview.pdf">"Soils overview provided by The Soil Science Society of America"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Soils+overview+provided+by+The+Soil+Science+Society+of+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.soils.org%2Ffiles%2Fabout-soils%2Fsoils-overview.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Pouyat, Richard; Groffman, Peter; Yesilonis, Ian & Hernandez, Luis (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2002/ne_2002_Pouyat_001.pdf">"Soil carbon pools and fluxes in urban ecosystems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Pollution_(journal)" title="Environmental Pollution (journal)">Environmental Pollution</a></i>. <b>116</b> (Supplement 1): S107–S118. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0269-7491%2801%2900263-9">10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00263-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11833898">11833898</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Pollution&rft.atitle=Soil+carbon+pools+and+fluxes+in+urban+ecosystems&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=Supplement+1&rft.pages=S107-S118&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0269-7491%2801%2900263-9&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11833898&rft.aulast=Pouyat&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Groffman%2C+Peter&rft.au=Yesilonis%2C+Ian&rft.au=Hernandez%2C+Luis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncrs.fs.fed.us%2Fpubs%2Fjrnl%2F2002%2Fne_2002_Pouyat_001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Linn, Daniel Myron; Doran, John W. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/16745/PDF">"Effect of water-filled pore space on carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide production in tilled and nontilled soils"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Science Society of America Journal">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a></i>. <b>48</b> (6): 1267–72. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984SSASJ..48.1267L">1984SSASJ..48.1267L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2136%2Fsssaj1984.03615995004800060013x">10.2136/sssaj1984.03615995004800060013x</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+Science+Society+of+America+Journal&rft.atitle=Effect+of+water-filled+pore+space+on+carbon+dioxide+and+nitrous+oxide+production+in+tilled+and+nontilled+soils&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1267-72&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2136%2Fsssaj1984.03615995004800060013x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984SSASJ..48.1267L&rft.aulast=Linn&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Myron&rft.au=Doran%2C+John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnaldc.nal.usda.gov%2Fdownload%2F16745%2FPDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Miller, Raymond W.; Donahue, Roy Luther (1990). <i>Soils: an introduction to soils and plant growth</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-820226-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-820226-2"><bdi>978-0-13-820226-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soils%3A+an+introduction+to+soils+and+plant+growth&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-13-820226-2&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Raymond+W.&rft.au=Donahue%2C+Roy+Luther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bot, Alexandra; Benites, José (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-a0100e.pdf"><i>The importance of soil organic matter: key to drought-resistant soil and sustained food and production</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Rome: <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization_of_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-105366-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-5-105366-9"><bdi>978-92-5-105366-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+importance+of+soil+organic+matter%3A+key+to+drought-resistant+soil+and+sustained+food+and+production&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Food+and+Agriculture+Organization+of+the+United+Nations&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-92-5-105366-9&rft.aulast=Bot&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft.au=Benites%2C+Jos%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fa-a0100e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-McClellan2017-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan2017_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan2017_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">McClellan, Tai. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/mauisoil/a_comp.aspx">"Soil composition"</a>. University of Hawai‘i – College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Soil+composition&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%E2%80%98i+%E2%80%93+College+of+Tropical+Agriculture+and+Human+Resources&rft.aulast=McClellan&rft.aufirst=Tai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctahr.hawaii.edu%2Fmauisoil%2Fa_comp.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/soils.html">"Arizona Master Gardener Manual"</a>. Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture, University of Arizona. 9 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160529015259/http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/soils.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arizona+Master+Gardener+Manual&rft.pub=Cooperative+Extension%2C+College+of+Agriculture%2C+University+of+Arizona&rft.date=2017-11-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fag.arizona.edu%2Fpubs%2Fgarden%2Fmg%2Fsoils%2Fsoils.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-CEC-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CEC_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CEC_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soilminerals.com/Cation_Exchange_Simplified.htm">"Cation exchange capacity in soils, simplified"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cation+exchange+capacity+in+soils%2C+simplified&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soilminerals.com%2FCation_Exchange_Simplified.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Miller, Jarrod O. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/18519/FS-1054%20Soil%20pH%20and%20Nutrient%20Availbility.pdf">"Soil pH affects nutrient availability"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Maryland">University of Maryland</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Maryland&rft.atitle=Soil+pH+affects+nutrient+availability&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Jarrod+O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdrum.lib.umd.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1903%2F18519%2FFS-1054%2520Soil%2520pH%2520and%2520Nutrient%2520Availbility.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Goulding, Keith W.T.; Bailey, Neal J.; Bradbury, Nicola J.; Hargreaves, Patrick; Howe, MT; Murphy, Daniel V.; Poulton, Paul R. & Willison, Toby W. (1998). "Nitrogen deposition and its contribution to nitrogen cycling and associated soil processes". <i><a href="/wiki/New_Phytologist" title="New Phytologist">New Phytologist</a></i>. <b>139</b> (1): 49‒58. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1469-8137.1998.00182.x">10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998.00182.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=Nitrogen+deposition+and+its+contribution+to+nitrogen+cycling+and+associated+soil+processes&rft.volume=139&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49%E2%80%9258&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1469-8137.1998.00182.x&rft.aulast=Goulding&rft.aufirst=Keith+W.T.&rft.au=Bailey%2C+Neal+J.&rft.au=Bradbury%2C+Nicola+J.&rft.au=Hargreaves%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Howe%2C+MT&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Daniel+V.&rft.au=Poulton%2C+Paul+R.&rft.au=Willison%2C+Toby+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kononova, M.M. (2013). <i>Soil organic matter: its nature, its role in soil formation and in soil fertility</i> (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4831-8568-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4831-8568-2"><bdi>978-1-4831-8568-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soil+organic+matter%3A+its+nature%2C+its+role+in+soil+formation+and+in+soil+fertility&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4831-8568-2&rft.aulast=Kononova&rft.aufirst=M.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hillel, Daniel (1993). <i>Out of the Earth: civilization and the life of the soil</i>. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08080-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08080-5"><bdi>978-0-520-08080-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+Earth%3A+civilization+and+the+life+of+the+soil&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08080-5&rft.aulast=Hillel&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna19774-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna19774_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna19774_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19571-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19571_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKellogg1957">Kellogg 1957</a>, p. 1.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-%27Awwam" title="Ibn al-'Awwam">Ibn al-'Awwam</a> (1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009953450"><i>Le livre de l'agriculture, traduit de l'arabe par Jean Jacques Clément-Mullet</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. Filāḥah.French (in French). Paris: Librairie A. Franck<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+livre+de+l%27agriculture%2C+traduit+de+l%27arabe+par+Jean+Jacques+Cl%C3%A9ment-Mullet&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Fil%C4%81%E1%B8%A5ah.French&rft.pub=Librairie+A.+Franck&rft.date=1864&rft.au=Ibn+al-%27Awwam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F009953450&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jelinek, Lawrence J. (1982). <i>Harvest empire: a history of California agriculture</i>. San Francisco: Boyd and Fraser. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87835-131-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87835-131-2"><bdi>978-0-87835-131-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harvest+empire%3A+a+history+of+California+agriculture&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Boyd+and+Fraser&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-87835-131-2&rft.aulast=Jelinek&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">de Serres, Olivier (1600). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k738381/f1.image"><i>Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et mesnage des champs</i></a> (in French). Paris: Jamet Métayer<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre+d%27Agriculture+et+mesnage+des+champs&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Jamet+M%C3%A9tayer&rft.date=1600&rft.aulast=de+Serres&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k738381%2Ff1.image&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Virto, Iñigo; Imaz, María José; Fernández-Ugalde, Oihane; Gartzia-Bengoetxea, Nahia; Enrique, Alberto & Bescansa, Paloma (2015). "Soil degradation and soil quality in western Europe: current situation and future perspectives". <i>Sustainability</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 313–65. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu7010313">10.3390/su7010313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sustainability&rft.atitle=Soil+degradation+and+soil+quality+in+western+Europe%3A+current+situation+and+future+perspectives&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=313-65&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fsu7010313&rft.aulast=Virto&rft.aufirst=I%C3%B1igo&rft.au=Imaz%2C+Mar%C3%ADa+Jos%C3%A9&rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Ugalde%2C+Oihane&rft.au=Gartzia-Bengoetxea%2C+Nahia&rft.au=Enrique%2C+Alberto&rft.au=Bescansa%2C+Paloma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Van der Ploeg, Rienk R.; Schweigert, Peter & Bachmann, Joerg (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6084271">"Use and misuse of nitrogen in agriculture: the German story"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_World_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific World Journal">Scientific World Journal</a></i>. <b>1</b> (S2): 737–44. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1100%2Ftsw.2001.263">10.1100/tsw.2001.263</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6084271">6084271</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12805882">12805882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+World+Journal&rft.atitle=Use+and+misuse+of+nitrogen+in+agriculture%3A+the+German+story&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=S2&rft.pages=737-44&rft.date=2001&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6084271&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12805882&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1100%2Ftsw.2001.263&rft.aulast=Van+der+Ploeg&rft.aufirst=Rienk+R.&rft.au=Schweigert%2C+Peter&rft.au=Bachmann%2C+Joerg&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6084271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Brady-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brady_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brady_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brady_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brady_55-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brady_55-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Brady, Nyle C. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureproperties00brad_0"><i>The nature and properties of soils</i></a> (9th ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Collier_Macmillan" class="mw-redirect" title="Collier Macmillan">Collier Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-313340-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-313340-4"><bdi>978-0-02-313340-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+and+properties+of+soils&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Collier+Macmillan&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-02-313340-4&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=Nyle+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatureproperties00brad_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19573-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19573_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKellogg1957">Kellogg 1957</a>, p. 3.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19572-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19572_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKellogg1957">Kellogg 1957</a>, p. 2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">de Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent (1777). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Franklin/Franklin_pdf/Mem1777_p592.pdf">"Mémoire sur la combustion en général"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=M%C3%A9moires+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+Royale+des+Sciences&rft.atitle=M%C3%A9moire+sur+la+combustion+en+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral&rft.date=1777&rft.aulast=de+Lavoisier&rft.aufirst=Antoine-Laurent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academie-sciences.fr%2Fpdf%2Fdossiers%2FFranklin%2FFranklin_pdf%2FMem1777_p592.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Boussingault, Jean-Baptiste (1860–1874). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/8TSUP364_1"><i>Agronomie, chimie agricole et physiologie, volumes 1–5</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span> (in French). Paris: Mallet-Bachelier<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agronomie%2C+chimie+agricole+et+physiologie%2C+volumes+1%E2%80%935&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Mallet-Bachelier&rft.date=1860%2F1874&rft.aulast=Boussingault&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F8TSUP364_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">von Liebig, Justus (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00liebrich"><i>Organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. London: Taylor and Walton<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organic+chemistry+in+its+applications+to+agriculture+and+physiology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Walton&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=von+Liebig&rft.aufirst=Justus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Forganicchemistry00liebrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19574-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19574_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19574_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKellogg1957">Kellogg 1957</a>, p. 4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellogg19571–4-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKellogg19571–4_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKellogg1957">Kellogg 1957</a>, pp. 1–4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Bishop, Janice L.; Murchie, Scott L.; Pieters, Carlé L. & Zent, Aaron P. (2002). "A model for formation of dust, soil, and rock coatings on Mars: physical and chemical processes on the Martian surface". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Geophysical_Research" title="Journal of Geophysical Research">Journal of Geophysical Research</a></i>. <b>107</b> (E11): 7-1–7-17. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JGRE..107.5097B">2002JGRE..107.5097B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2001JE001581">10.1029/2001JE001581</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=A+model+for+formation+of+dust%2C+soil%2C+and+rock+coatings+on+Mars%3A+physical+and+chemical+processes+on+the+Martian+surface&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=E11&rft.pages=7-1-7-17&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2001JE001581&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002JGRE..107.5097B&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=Janice+L.&rft.au=Murchie%2C+Scott+L.&rft.au=Pieters%2C+Carl%C3%A9+L.&rft.au=Zent%2C+Aaron+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Kabala, Cesary & Kubicz, Justyna (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/31221217">"Initial soil development and carbon accumulation on moraines of the rapidly retreating Werenskiold Glacier, SW Spitsbergen, Svalbard archipelago"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i>Geoderma</i>. 175/176: 9–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Geode.175....9K">2012Geode.175....9K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geoderma.2012.01.025">10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.01.025</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoderma&rft.atitle=Initial+soil+development+and+carbon+accumulation+on+moraines+of+the+rapidly+retreating+Werenskiold+Glacier%2C+SW+Spitsbergen%2C+Svalbard+archipelago&rft.volume=175%2F176&rft.pages=9-20&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.geoderma.2012.01.025&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Geode.175....9K&rft.aulast=Kabala&rft.aufirst=Cesary&rft.au=Kubicz%2C+Justyna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F31221217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Jenny1941-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jenny1941_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jenny1941_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jenny1941_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jenny1941_78-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jenny, Hans (1941). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808104008/http://netedu.xauat.edu.cn/sykc/hjx/content/ckzl/6/2.pdf"><i>Factors of soil formation: a system of qunatitative pedology</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://netedu.xauat.edu.cn/sykc/hjx/content/ckzl/6/2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Factors+of+soil+formation%3A+a+system+of+qunatitative+pedology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Jenny&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnetedu.xauat.edu.cn%2Fsykc%2Fhjx%2Fcontent%2Fckzl%2F6%2F2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Ritter, Michael E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/title_page.html">"The physical environment: an introduction to physical geography"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+physical+environment%3A+an+introduction+to+physical+geography&rft.aulast=Ritter&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earthonlinemedia.com%2Febooks%2Ftpe_3e%2Ftitle_page.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197720–21-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197720–21_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, pp. 20–21.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197721-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197721_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 21.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197724-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197724_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 24.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Uroz, Stéphane; Calvaruso, Christophe; Turpault, Marie-Pierre & Frey-Klett, Pascale (2009). "Mineral weathering by bacteria: ecology, actors and mechanisms". <i><a href="/wiki/Trends_in_Microbiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Trends in Microbiology">Trends in Microbiology</a></i>. <b>17</b> (8): 378–87. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2009.05.004">10.1016/j.tim.2009.05.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19660952">19660952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Mineral+weathering+by+bacteria%3A+ecology%2C+actors+and+mechanisms&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=378-87&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tim.2009.05.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19660952&rft.aulast=Uroz&rft.aufirst=St%C3%A9phane&rft.au=Calvaruso%2C+Christophe&rft.au=Turpault%2C+Marie-Pierre&rft.au=Frey-Klett%2C+Pascale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Bormann, Bernard T.; Spaltenstein, Henri; McClellan, Michael H.; Ugolini, Fiorenzo C.; Cromack, Kermit Jr & Nay, Stephan M. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fsl.orst.edu/ltep/Reprints_files/Bormann%20JE1995%20windthrow%20chrono.pdf">"Rapid soil development after windthrow disturbance in pristine forests"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Ecology" title="Journal of Ecology">Journal of Ecology</a></i>. <b>83</b> (5): 747–57. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2261411">10.2307/2261411</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2261411">2261411</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ecology&rft.atitle=Rapid+soil+development+after+windthrow+disturbance+in+pristine+forests&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=747-57&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2261411&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2261411&rft.aulast=Bormann&rft.aufirst=Bernard+T.&rft.au=Spaltenstein%2C+Henri&rft.au=McClellan%2C+Michael+H.&rft.au=Ugolini%2C+Fiorenzo+C.&rft.au=Cromack%2C+Kermit+Jr&rft.au=Nay%2C+Stephan+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsl.orst.edu%2Fltep%2FReprints_files%2FBormann%2520JE1995%2520windthrow%2520chrono.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Landhäusser-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Landhäusser_262-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Landhäusser_262-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Landhäusser, Simon M.; DesRochers, Annie & Lieffers, Victor J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/15511627">"A comparison of growth and physiology in Picea glauca and Populus tremuloides at different soil temperatures"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Journal_of_Forest_Research" title="Canadian Journal of Forest Research">Canadian Journal of Forest Research</a></i>. <b>31</b> (11): 1922–29. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fx01-129">10.1139/x01-129</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Forest+Research&rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+growth+and+physiology+in+Picea+glauca+and+Populus+tremuloides+at+different+soil+temperatures&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1922-29&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fx01-129&rft.aulast=Landh%C3%A4usser&rft.aufirst=Simon+M.&rft.au=DesRochers%2C+Annie&rft.au=Lieffers%2C+Victor+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F15511627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Fanning, D.S.; Rabenhorst, M.C. & Bigham, J.M. (1993). <span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/books/abstracts/sssaspecialpubl/soilcolor/91">"Colors of acid sulfate soils"</a></span>. In Bigham, J.M. & Ciolkosz, E.J. (eds.). <i>Soil color</i> (1st ed.). Fitchburg, Wisconsin: <a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America" title="Soil Science Society of America">Soil Science Society of America</a>. pp. 91–108. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89118-926-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89118-926-8"><bdi>978-0-89118-926-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colors+of+acid+sulfate+soils&rft.btitle=Soil+color&rft.place=Fitchburg%2C+Wisconsin&rft.pages=91-108&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Soil+Science+Society+of+America&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-89118-926-8&rft.aulast=Fanning&rft.aufirst=D.S.&rft.au=Rabenhorst%2C+M.C.&rft.au=Bigham%2C+J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdl.sciencesocieties.org%2Fpublications%2Fbooks%2Fabstracts%2Fsssaspecialpubl%2Fsoilcolor%2F91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=nrcs142p2_054286">"The color of soil"</a>. U.S. Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources Conservation Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+color+of+soil&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Agriculture+%E2%80%93+Natural+Resources+Conservation+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrcs.usda.gov%2Fwps%2Fportal%2Fnrcs%2Fdetail%2Fsoils%2Fedu%2F%3Fcid%3Dnrcs142p2_054286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-286"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Noor, Ehteram A. & Al-Moubaraki, Aisha (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272039484">"Influence of soil moisture content on the corrosion behavior of X60 steel in different soils"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i>Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering</i>. <b>39</b> (7): 5421–35. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13369-014-1135-2">10.1007/s13369-014-1135-2</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arabian+Journal+for+Science+and+Engineering&rft.atitle=Influence+of+soil+moisture+content+on+the+corrosion+behavior+of+X60+steel+in+different+soils&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=5421-35&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13369-014-1135-2&rft.aulast=Noor&rft.aufirst=Ehteram+A.&rft.au=Al-Moubaraki%2C+Aisha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F272039484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-287"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Amrheln, Christopher; Strong, James E. & Mosher, Paul A. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eurekamag.com/ftext.php?pdf=002354564">"Effect of deicing salts on metal and organic matter mobility in roadside soils"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Science_and_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Science and Technology">Environmental Science and Technology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (4): 703–09. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992EnST...26..703A">1992EnST...26..703A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes00028a006">10.1021/es00028a006</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Effect+of+deicing+salts+on+metal+and+organic+matter+mobility+in+roadside+soils&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=703-09&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fes00028a006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992EnST...26..703A&rft.aulast=Amrheln&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Strong%2C+James+E.&rft.au=Mosher%2C+Paul+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feurekamag.com%2Fftext.php%3Fpdf%3D002354564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-288"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Samouëlian, Anatja; Cousin, Isabelle; Tabbagh, Alain; Bruand, Ary & Richard, Guy (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal-insu.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00023493/document">"Electrical resistivity survey in soil science: a review"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i>Soil and Tillage Research</i>. <b>83</b> (2): 173–93. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX" title="CiteSeerX">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.530.686">10.1.1.530.686</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.still.2004.10.004">10.1016/j.still.2004.10.004</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+and+Tillage+Research&rft.atitle=Electrical+resistivity+survey+in+soil+science%3A+a+review&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=173-93&rft.date=2005&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.530.686&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.still.2004.10.004&rft.aulast=Samou%C3%ABlian&rft.aufirst=Anatja&rft.au=Cousin%2C+Isabelle&rft.au=Tabbagh%2C+Alain&rft.au=Bruand%2C+Ary&rft.au=Richard%2C+Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal-insu.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-00023493%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-289"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wallace, James S. & Batchelor, Charles H. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691982">"Managing water resources for crop production"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B:_Biological_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a></i>. <b>352</b> (1356): 937–47. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1997.0073">10.1098/rstb.1997.0073</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691982">1691982</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Managing+water+resources+for+crop+production&rft.volume=352&rft.issue=1356&rft.pages=937-47&rft.date=1997&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1691982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1997.0073&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=James+S.&rft.au=Batchelor%2C+Charles+H.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1691982&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-290"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Veihmeyer, Frank J. & Hendrickson, Arthur H. (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC439946">"Soil-moisture conditions in relation to plant growth"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Plant_Physiology_(journal)" title="Plant Physiology (journal)">Plant Physiology</a></i>. <b>2</b> (1): 71–82. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.2.1.71">10.1104/pp.2.1.71</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC439946">439946</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16652508">16652508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+Physiology&rft.atitle=Soil-moisture+conditions+in+relation+to+plant+growth&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-82&rft.date=1927&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC439946&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16652508&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1104%2Fpp.2.1.71&rft.aulast=Veihmeyer&rft.aufirst=Frank+J.&rft.au=Hendrickson%2C+Arthur+H.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC439946&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197772-291"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197772_291-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 72.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-292"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Van Breemen, Nico & Buurman, Peter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40190754"><i>Soil formation</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span> (2nd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: <a href="/wiki/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kluwer Academic Publishers">Kluwer Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-48163-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-48163-5"><bdi>978-0-306-48163-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soil+formation&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-306-48163-5&rft.aulast=Van+Breemen&rft.aufirst=Nico&rft.au=Buurman%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F40190754&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-293"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Ratliff, Larry F.; Ritchie, Jerry T. & Cassel, D. Keith (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250125818">"Field-measured limits of soil water availability as related to laboratory-measured properties"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Science Society of America Journal">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a></i>. <b>47</b> (4): 770–75. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983SSASJ..47..770R">1983SSASJ..47..770R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2136%2Fsssaj1983.03615995004700040032x">10.2136/sssaj1983.03615995004700040032x</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+Science+Society+of+America+Journal&rft.atitle=Field-measured+limits+of+soil+water+availability+as+related+to+laboratory-measured+properties&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=770-75&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2136%2Fsssaj1983.03615995004700040032x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983SSASJ..47..770R&rft.aulast=Ratliff&rft.aufirst=Larry+F.&rft.au=Ritchie%2C+Jerry+T.&rft.au=Cassel%2C+D.+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F250125818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748-294"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748_294-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748_294-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748_294-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195748_294-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWadleigh1957">Wadleigh 1957</a>, p. 48.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195750-295"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195750_295-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsRichards1957">Richards & Richards 1957</a>, p. 50.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195739-297"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWadleigh195739_297-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWadleigh1957">Wadleigh 1957</a>, p. 39.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195752-298"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsRichards195752_298-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsRichards1957">Richards & Richards 1957</a>, p. 52.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-317"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Savage, Michael J.; Ritchie, Joe T.; Bland, William L. & Dugas, William A. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309079210">"Lower limit of soil water availability"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Agronomy_Journal" title="Agronomy Journal">Agronomy Journal</a></i>. <b>88</b> (4): 644–51. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2134%2Fagronj1996.00021962008800040024x">10.2134/agronj1996.00021962008800040024x</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Agronomy+Journal&rft.atitle=Lower+limit+of+soil+water+availability&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=644-51&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2134%2Fagronj1996.00021962008800040024x&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft.au=Ritchie%2C+Joe+T.&rft.au=Bland%2C+William+L.&rft.au=Dugas%2C+William+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F309079210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197792-347"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197792_347-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 92.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197794-353"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197794_353-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna197794_353-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 94.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-382"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Banfield, Jillian F.; Barker, William W.; Welch, Susan A. & Taunton, Anne (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/96/7/3404.full.pdf">"Biological impact on mineral dissolution: application of the lichen model to understanding mineral weathering in the rhizosphere"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</a></i>. <b>96</b> (7): 3404–11. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PNAS...96.3404B">1999PNAS...96.3404B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.96.7.3404">10.1073/pnas.96.7.3404</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC34281">34281</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10097050">10097050</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Biological+impact+on+mineral+dissolution%3A+application+of+the+lichen+model+to+understanding+mineral+weathering+in+the+rhizosphere&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=3404-11&rft.date=1999&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34281&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10097050&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.96.7.3404&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999PNAS...96.3404B&rft.aulast=Banfield&rft.aufirst=Jillian+F.&rft.au=Barker%2C+William+W.&rft.au=Welch%2C+Susan+A.&rft.au=Taunton%2C+Anne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pnas.org%2Fcontent%2Fpnas%2F96%2F7%2F3404.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-383"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Santamarina, J. Carlos; Klein, Katherine A.; Wang, Yu-Hsing & Prencke, E. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://egel.kaust.edu.sa/Documents/Papers/Santamarina_2002aaa.pdf">"Specific surface: determination and relevance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Geotechnical_Journal" title="Canadian Geotechnical Journal">Canadian Geotechnical Journal</a></i>. <b>39</b> (1): 233–41. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Ft01-077">10.1139/t01-077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Geotechnical+Journal&rft.atitle=Specific+surface%3A+determination+and+relevance&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=233-41&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Ft01-077&rft.aulast=Santamarina&rft.aufirst=J.+Carlos&rft.au=Klein%2C+Katherine+A.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Yu-Hsing&rft.au=Prencke%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fegel.kaust.edu.sa%2FDocuments%2FPapers%2FSantamarina_2002aaa.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-384"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Tombácz, Etelka & Szekeres, Márta (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/11482380">"Surface charge heterogeneity of kaolinite in aqueous suspension in comparison with montmorillonite"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i>Applied Clay Science</i>. <b>34</b> (1–4): 105–24. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.clay.2006.05.009">10.1016/j.clay.2006.05.009</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Clay+Science&rft.atitle=Surface+charge+heterogeneity+of+kaolinite+in+aqueous+suspension+in+comparison+with+montmorillonite&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=105-24&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.clay.2006.05.009&rft.aulast=Tomb%C3%A1cz&rft.aufirst=Etelka&rft.au=Szekeres%2C+M%C3%A1rta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F11482380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-385"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Brown, George (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243687416">"Crystal structures of clay minerals and related phyllosilicates"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>311</b> (1517): 221–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984RSPTA.311..221B">1984RSPTA.311..221B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1984.0025">10.1098/rsta.1984.0025</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Crystal+structures+of+clay+minerals+and+related+phyllosilicates&rft.volume=311&rft.issue=1517&rft.pages=221-40&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.1984.0025&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984RSPTA.311..221B&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F243687416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-386"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Hillier, Stephen (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303201730">"Clay mineralogy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. In Middleton, Gerard V.; Church, Michael J.; Coniglio, Mario; Hardie, Lawrence A.; Longstaffe, Frederick J. (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of sediments and Sedimentary rocks</i>. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media_B.V." class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science+Business Media B.V.">Springer Science+Business Media B.V.</a> pp. 139–42. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-31079-7_47">10.1007/3-540-31079-7_47</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87933-152-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87933-152-8"><bdi>978-0-87933-152-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Clay+mineralogy&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+sediments+and+Sedimentary+rocks&rft.place=Dordrecht%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.series=Encyclopedia+of+Earth+Science&rft.pages=139-42&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media+B.V.&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F3-540-31079-7_47&rft.isbn=978-0-87933-152-8&rft.aulast=Hillier&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F303201730&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977101–02-387"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977101–02_387-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, pp. 101–02.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-388"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Bergaya, Faïza; Beneke, Klaus; Lagaly, Gerhard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-kiel.de/anorg/lagaly/group/klausSchiver/clayhistory.pdf">"History and perspectives of clay science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kiel" title="University of Kiel">University of Kiel</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+and+perspectives+of+clay+science&rft.pub=University+of+Kiel&rft.aulast=Bergaya&rft.aufirst=Fa%C3%AFza&rft.au=Beneke%2C+Klaus&rft.au=Lagaly%2C+Gerhard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-kiel.de%2Fanorg%2Flagaly%2Fgroup%2FklausSchiver%2Fclayhistory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-389"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wilson, M. Jeff (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180329061907/http://www.minersoc.org/pages/Archive-CM/Volume_34/34-1-7.pdf">"The origin and formation of clay minerals in soils: past, present and future perspectives"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Clay Minerals</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 7–25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ClMin..34....7W">1999ClMin..34....7W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1180%2F000985599545957">10.1180/000985599545957</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minersoc.org/pages/Archive-CM/Volume_34/34-1-7.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clay+Minerals&rft.atitle=The+origin+and+formation+of+clay+minerals+in+soils%3A+past%2C+present+and+future+perspectives&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-25&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1180%2F000985599545957&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999ClMin..34....7W&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=M.+Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.minersoc.org%2Fpages%2FArchive-CM%2FVolume_34%2F34-1-7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESimonson195719-390"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimonson195719_390-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimonson1957">Simonson 1957</a>, p. 19.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-391"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-391">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Churchman, G. Jock (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249852539">"Clay minerals formed from micas and chlorites in some New Zealand soils"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i>Clay Minerals</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 59–76. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980ClMin..15...59C">1980ClMin..15...59C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fclaymin.1980.015.1.05">10.1180/claymin.1980.015.1.05</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clay+Minerals&rft.atitle=Clay+minerals+formed+from+micas+and+chlorites+in+some+New+Zealand+soils&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-76&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1180%2Fclaymin.1980.015.1.05&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980ClMin..15...59C&rft.aulast=Churchman&rft.aufirst=G.+Jock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F249852539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-392"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wada, Koji; Greenland, Dennis J. (1970). "Selective dissolution and differential infrared spectroscopy for characterization of 'amorphous' constituents in soil clays". <i>Clay Minerals</i>. <b>8</b> (3): 241–54. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970ClMin...8..241W">1970ClMin...8..241W</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX" title="CiteSeerX">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.624.1439">10.1.1.624.1439</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fclaymin.1970.008.3.02">10.1180/claymin.1970.008.3.02</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clay+Minerals&rft.atitle=Selective+dissolution+and+differential+infrared+spectroscopy+for+characterization+of+%27amorphous%27+constituents+in+soil+clays&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=241-54&rft.date=1970&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.624.1439&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1180%2Fclaymin.1970.008.3.02&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970ClMin...8..241W&rft.aulast=Wada&rft.aufirst=Koji&rft.au=Greenland%2C+Dennis+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977102-393"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977102_393-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 102.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-394"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galleries.com/Clays_Group">"The clay mineral group"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. Amethyst Galleries, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+clay+mineral+group&rft.pub=Amethyst+Galleries%2C+Inc.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galleries.com%2FClays_Group&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-395"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-395">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Schulze, Darrell G. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geoinfo.amu.edu.pl/geoinf/m/GLEB/1b%20Clay%20minerals_EncSoilEnv_SCHULZE%2005.pdf">"Clay minerals"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Hillel, Daniel (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of soils in the environment</i>. Amsterdam: Academic Press. pp. 246–54. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb0-12-348530-4%2F00189-2">10.1016/b0-12-348530-4/00189-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123485304" title="Special:BookSources/9780123485304"><bdi>9780123485304</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Clay+minerals&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+soils+in+the+environment&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=246-54&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb0-12-348530-4%2F00189-2&rft.isbn=9780123485304&rft.aulast=Schulze&rft.aufirst=Darrell+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geoinfo.amu.edu.pl%2Fgeoinf%2Fm%2FGLEB%2F1b%2520Clay%2520minerals_EncSoilEnv_SCHULZE%252005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195733-396"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195733_396-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195733_396-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell1957">Russell 1957</a>, p. 33.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-397"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-397">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Tambach, Tim J.; Bolhuis, Peter G.; Hensen, Emiel J.M.; Smit, Berend (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8012/819c1e06adc056ea770fae7f68adca09e61f.pdf">"Hysteresis in clay swelling induced by hydrogen bonding: accurate prediction of swelling states"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_(journal)" title="Langmuir (journal)">Langmuir</a></i>. <b>22</b> (3): 1223–34. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fla051367q">10.1021/la051367q</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16430287">16430287</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Langmuir&rft.atitle=Hysteresis+in+clay+swelling+induced+by+hydrogen+bonding%3A+accurate+prediction+of+swelling+states&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1223-34&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fla051367q&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16430287&rft.aulast=Tambach&rft.aufirst=Tim+J.&rft.au=Bolhuis%2C+Peter+G.&rft.au=Hensen%2C+Emiel+J.M.&rft.au=Smit%2C+Berend&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F8012%2F819c1e06adc056ea770fae7f68adca09e61f.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977102–07-398"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977102–07_398-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, pp. 102–07.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977101–07-399"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977101–07_399-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, pp. 101–07.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-400"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Aylmore, L.A. Graham & Quirk, James P. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285159912">"Domains and quasicrystalline regions in clay systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Science Society of America Journal">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a></i>. <b>35</b> (4): 652–54. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971SSASJ..35..652Q">1971SSASJ..35..652Q</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2136%2Fsssaj1971.03615995003500040046x">10.2136/sssaj1971.03615995003500040046x</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+Science+Society+of+America+Journal&rft.atitle=Domains+and+quasicrystalline+regions+in+clay+systems&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=652-54&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2136%2Fsssaj1971.03615995003500040046x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971SSASJ..35..652Q&rft.aulast=Aylmore&rft.aufirst=L.A.+Graham&rft.au=Quirk%2C+James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F285159912&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Barton2002-401"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barton2002_401-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barton2002_401-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Barton, Christopher D.; Karathanasis, Anastasios D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_barton002.pdf">"Clay minerals"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Lal, Rattan (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Soil Science</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Dekker" title="Marcel Dekker">Marcel Dekker</a>. pp. 187–92<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Clay+minerals&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Soil+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=187-92&rft.pub=Marcel+Dekker&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=Christopher+D.&rft.au=Karathanasis%2C+Anastasios+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.srs.fs.usda.gov%2Fpubs%2Fja%2Fja_barton002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-402"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Schoonheydt, Robert A.; Johnston, Cliff T. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280884094">"The surface properties of clay minerals"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. In Brigatti, Maria Franca; Mottana, Annibale (eds.). <i>Layered mineral structures and their application in advanced technologies</i>. Twickenham, UK: <a href="/wiki/Mineralogical_Society_of_Great_Britain_%26_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralogical Society of Great Britain & Ireland">Mineralogical Society of Great Britain & Ireland</a>. pp. 337–73<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+surface+properties+of+clay+minerals&rft.btitle=Layered+mineral+structures+and+their+application+in+advanced+technologies&rft.place=Twickenham%2C+UK&rft.pages=337-73&rft.pub=Mineralogical+Society+of+Great+Britain+%26+Ireland&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Schoonheydt&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Johnston%2C+Cliff+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F280884094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977107-403"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977107_403-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 107.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-404"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-404">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Lagaly, Gerhard (1979). "The "layer charge" of regular interstratified 2:1 clay minerals". <i>Clays and Clay Minerals</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 1–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979CCM....27....1L">1979CCM....27....1L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1346%2FCCMN.1979.0270101">10.1346/CCMN.1979.0270101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clays+and+Clay+Minerals&rft.atitle=The+%22layer+charge%22+of+regular+interstratified+2%3A1+clay+minerals&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-10&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1346%2FCCMN.1979.0270101&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1979CCM....27....1L&rft.aulast=Lagaly&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-405"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-405">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Eirish, M. V.; Tret'yakova, L. I. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719032202/http://www.minersoc.org/pages/Archive-CM/Volume_8/8-3-255.pdf">"The role of sorptive layers in the formation and change of the crystal structure of montmorillonite"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Clay Minerals</i>. <b>8</b> (3): 255–66. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970ClMin...8..255E">1970ClMin...8..255E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fclaymin.1970.008.3.03">10.1180/claymin.1970.008.3.03</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minersoc.org/pages/Archive-CM/Volume_8/8-3-255.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clay+Minerals&rft.atitle=The+role+of+sorptive+layers+in+the+formation+and+change+of+the+crystal+structure+of+montmorillonite&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=255-66&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1180%2Fclaymin.1970.008.3.03&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1970ClMin...8..255E&rft.aulast=Eirish&rft.aufirst=M.+V.&rft.au=Tret%27yakova%2C+L.+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.minersoc.org%2Fpages%2FArchive-CM%2FVolume_8%2F8-3-255.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-406"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Tardy, Yves; Bocquier, Gérard; Paquet, Hélène; Millot, Georges (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eurekamag.com/pdf/000/000097672.pdf">"Formation of clay from granite and its distribution in relation to climate and topography"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geoderma</i>. <b>10</b> (4): 271–84. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Geode..10..271T">1973Geode..10..271T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7061%2873%2990002-5">10.1016/0016-7061(73)90002-5</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoderma&rft.atitle=Formation+of+clay+from+granite+and+its+distribution+in+relation+to+climate+and+topography&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=271-84&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0016-7061%2873%2990002-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973Geode..10..271T&rft.aulast=Tardy&rft.aufirst=Yves&rft.au=Bocquier%2C+G%C3%A9rard&rft.au=Paquet%2C+H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft.au=Millot%2C+Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feurekamag.com%2Fpdf%2F000%2F000097672.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977108-407"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977108_407-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 108.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195733–34-408"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195733–34_408-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195733–34_408-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell1957">Russell 1957</a>, pp. 33–34.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195774-409"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195774_409-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195774_409-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFColemanMehlich1957">Coleman & Mehlich 1957</a>, p. 74.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-410"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-410">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Meunier, Alain; Velde, Bruce (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/springer_10.1007-978-3-662-07850-1">"The geology of illite"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">PDF</a>)</span>. <i>Illite: origins, evolution and metamorphism</i>. Berlin: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. pp. 63–143<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+geology+of+illite&rft.btitle=Illite%3A+origins%2C+evolution+and+metamorphism&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=63-143&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Meunier&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft.au=Velde%2C+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspringer_10.1007-978-3-662-07850-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977108–10-411"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977108–10_411-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, pp. 108–10.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDean195782-412"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDean195782_412-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDean195782_412-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDean1957">Dean 1957</a>, p. 82.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllison195790-413"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison195790_413-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison195790_413-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison195790_413-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllison1957">Allison 1957</a>, p. 90.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957103-414"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957103_414-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReitemeier1957103_414-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReitemeier1957">Reitemeier 1957</a>, p. 103.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-415"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-415">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Norrish, Keith; Rausell-Colom, José Antonio (1961). "Low-angle X-ray diffraction studies of the swelling of montmorillonite and vermiculite". <i>Clays and Clay Minerals</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 123–49. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961CCM....10..123N">1961CCM....10..123N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1346%2FCCMN.1961.0100112">10.1346/CCMN.1961.0100112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clays+and+Clay+Minerals&rft.atitle=Low-angle+X-ray+diffraction+studies+of+the+swelling+of+montmorillonite+and+vermiculite&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=123-49&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1346%2FCCMN.1961.0100112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1961CCM....10..123N&rft.aulast=Norrish&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft.au=Rausell-Colom%2C+Jos%C3%A9+Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977110-416"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977110_416-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977110_416-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 110.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195773-417"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColemanMehlich195773_417-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFColemanMehlich1957">Coleman & Mehlich 1957</a>, p. 73.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmesBrown1957112-419"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmesBrown1957112_419-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmesBrown1957">Holmes & Brown 1957</a>, p. 112.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977111-424"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977111_424-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977111_424-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 111.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977112-439"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977112_439-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, p. 112.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell195735-440"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell195735_440-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell1957">Russell 1957</a>, p. 35.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977116–19-492"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977116–19_492-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, pp. 116–19.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussel1957123–25-502"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussel1957123–25_502-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussel1957">Russel 1957</a>, pp. 123–25.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-BradyWeil-503"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BradyWeil_503-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BradyWeil_503-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Brady, Nyle C.; Weil, Ray R. (2008). <i>The nature and properties of soils</i> (14th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+and+properties+of+soils&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River&rft.edition=14th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=Nyle+C.&rft.au=Weil%2C+Ray+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-504"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-504">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Van der Ploeg, Rienk R.; Böhm, Wolfgang & Kirkham, Mary Beth (1999). "On the origin of the theory of mineral nutrition of plants and the Law of the Minimum". <i><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Science Society of America Journal">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a></i>. <b>63</b> (5): 1055–62. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999SSASJ..63.1055V">1999SSASJ..63.1055V</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX" title="CiteSeerX">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.475.7392">10.1.1.475.7392</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2136%2Fsssaj1999.6351055x">10.2136/sssaj1999.6351055x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+Science+Society+of+America+Journal&rft.atitle=On+the+origin+of+the+theory+of+mineral+nutrition+of+plants+and+the+Law+of+the+Minimum&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1055-62&rft.date=1999&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.475.7392&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2136%2Fsssaj1999.6351055x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999SSASJ..63.1055V&rft.aulast=Van+der+Ploeg&rft.aufirst=Rienk+R.&rft.au=B%C3%B6hm%2C+Wolfgang&rft.au=Kirkham%2C+Mary+Beth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-505"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-505">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Knecht, Magnus F. & Göransson, Anders (2004). "Terrestrial plants require nutrients in similar proportions". <i>Tree Physiology</i>. <b>24</b> (4): 447–60. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ftreephys%2F24.4.447">10.1093/treephys/24.4.447</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14757584">14757584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tree+Physiology&rft.atitle=Terrestrial+plants+require+nutrients+in+similar+proportions&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=447-60&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ftreephys%2F24.4.447&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14757584&rft.aulast=Knecht&rft.aufirst=Magnus+F.&rft.au=G%C3%B6ransson%2C+Anders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDean195780–81-506"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDean195780–81_506-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDean1957">Dean 1957</a>, pp. 80–81.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-598"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-598">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Pimentel, D.; et al. (1995). "Environmental and economic costs of soil erosion and conservation benefits". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>267</b> (24): 1117–22. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Sci...267.1117P">1995Sci...267.1117P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.267.5201.1117">10.1126/science.267.5201.1117</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17789193">17789193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Environmental+and+economic+costs+of+soil+erosion+and+conservation+benefits&rft.volume=267&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=1117-22&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17789193&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.267.5201.1117&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Sci...267.1117P&rft.au=Pimentel%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Foth1984-599"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foth1984_599-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foth1984_599-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Foth, Henry D. (1984). <i>Fundamentals of soil science</i>. New York: Wiley. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-88926-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-88926-7"><bdi>978-0-471-88926-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+soil+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-471-88926-7&rft.aulast=Foth&rft.aufirst=Henry+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-600"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-600">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Gilluly, Waters, Woodford (1975). <i>Principles of Geology</i> (4th ed.). W.H. Freeman. p. 216. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0269-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-0269-6"><bdi>978-0-7167-0269-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Geology&rft.pages=216&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-0269-6&rft.au=Gilluly%2C+Waters%2C+Woodford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Verkaik2006-601"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Verkaik2006_601-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Verkaik, Eric; Jongkind, Anne G.; Berendse, Frank (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edepot.wur.nl/25615">"Short-term and long-term effects of tannins on nitrogen mineralization and litter decomposition in kauri (Agathis australis (D. Don) Lindl.) forests"</a>. <i>Plant and Soil</i>. <b>287</b> (1–2): 337–45. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11104-006-9081-8">10.1007/s11104-006-9081-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plant+and+Soil&rft.atitle=Short-term+and+long-term+effects+of+tannins+on+nitrogen+mineralization+and+litter+decomposition+in+kauri+%28Agathis+australis+%28D.+Don%29+Lindl.%29+forests&rft.volume=287&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=337-45&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11104-006-9081-8&rft.aulast=Verkaik&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Jongkind%2C+Anne+G.&rft.au=Berendse%2C+Frank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedepot.wur.nl%2F25615&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Fierer2001-602"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fierer2001_602-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Fierer, N.; Schimel, Joshua P.; Cates, Rex G.; Zou, Jiping (2001). "Influence of balsam poplar tannin fractions on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in Alaskan taiga floodplain soils". <i>Soil Biology and Biochemistry</i>. <b>33</b> (12–13): 1827–39. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0038-0717%2801%2900111-0">10.1016/S0038-0717(01)00111-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+Biology+and+Biochemistry&rft.atitle=Influence+of+balsam+poplar+tannin+fractions+on+carbon+and+nitrogen+dynamics+in+Alaskan+taiga+floodplain+soils&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=12%E2%80%9313&rft.pages=1827-39&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0038-0717%2801%2900111-0&rft.aulast=Fierer&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Schimel%2C+Joshua+P.&rft.au=Cates%2C+Rex+G.&rft.au=Zou%2C+Jiping&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Wagai2008-603"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wagai2008_603-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wagai, Rota; Mayer, Lawrence M.; Kitayama, Kanehiro; Knicker, Heike (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/82461/1/Acceso%20restringido%20Digital%20CSIC.pdf">"Climate and parent material controls on organic matter storage in surface soils: A three-pool, density-separation approach"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geoderma</i>. <b>147</b> (1–2): 23–33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Geode.147...23W">2008Geode.147...23W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geoderma.2008.07.010">10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.07.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/Handle_System" title="Handle System">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//hdl.handle.net/10261%2F82461">10261/82461</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoderma&rft.atitle=Climate+and+parent+material+controls+on+organic+matter+storage+in+surface+soils%3A+A+three-pool%2C+density-separation+approach&rft.volume=147&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=23-33&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10261%2F82461&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.geoderma.2008.07.010&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Geode.147...23W&rft.aulast=Wagai&rft.aufirst=Rota&rft.au=Mayer%2C+Lawrence+M.&rft.au=Kitayama%2C+Kanehiro&rft.au=Knicker%2C+Heike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.csic.es%2Fbitstream%2F10261%2F82461%2F1%2FAcceso%2520restringido%2520Digital%2520CSIC.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Minayeva2008-604"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Minayeva2008_604-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Minayeva, T. Yu.; Trofimov, S. Ya.; Chichagova, O.A.; Dorofeyeva, E.I.; Sirin, A.A.; Glushkov, I.V.; Mikhailov, N.D.; Kromer, B. (2008). "Carbon accumulation in soils of forest and bog ecosystems of southern Valdai in the Holocene". <i>Biology Bulletin</i>. <b>35</b> (5): 524–32. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1062359008050142">10.1134/S1062359008050142</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Carbon+accumulation+in+soils+of+forest+and+bog+ecosystems+of+southern+Valdai+in+the+Holocene&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=524-32&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS1062359008050142&rft.aulast=Minayeva&rft.aufirst=T.+Yu.&rft.au=Trofimov%2C+S.+Ya.&rft.au=Chichagova%2C+O.A.&rft.au=Dorofeyeva%2C+E.I.&rft.au=Sirin%2C+A.A.&rft.au=Glushkov%2C+I.V.&rft.au=Mikhailov%2C+N.D.&rft.au=Kromer%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sanchez1976-605"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sanchez1976_605-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Sanchez, Pedro A. (1976). <i>Properties and management of soils in the tropics</i>. New York: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-75200-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-75200-4"><bdi>978-0-471-75200-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Properties+and+management+of+soils+in+the+tropics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-471-75200-4&rft.aulast=Sanchez&rft.aufirst=Pedro+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Paul1997-606"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paul1997_606-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paul1997_606-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Paul, E.A. (1997). <i>Soil organic matter in temperate agroecosystems : long-term experiments in North America</i>. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2802-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2802-2"><bdi>978-0-8493-2802-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soil+organic+matter+in+temperate+agroecosystems+%3A+long-term+experiments+in+North+America&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-2802-2&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=E.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Retallack1990-607"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Retallack1990_607-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Retallack, G.J. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=YVkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32&dq=Soil+horizons"><i>Soils of the past : an introduction to paleopedology</i></a>. Boston: Unwin Hyman. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-445757-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-445757-2"><bdi>978-0-04-445757-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soils+of+the+past+%3A+an+introduction+to+paleopedology&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Unwin+Hyman&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-04-445757-2&rft.aulast=Retallack&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DYVkVAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA32%26dq%3DSoil%2Bhorizons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Buol1990-608"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buol1990_608-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Buol, S.W. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=QM0kfIGYMjcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Soil"><i>Soil genesis and classification</i></a>. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1081%2FE-ESS">10.1081/E-ESS</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-2873-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-2873-2"><bdi>978-0-8138-2873-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soil+genesis+and+classification&rft.place=Ames%2C+Iowa&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Iowa+State+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1081%2FE-ESS&rft.isbn=978-0-8138-2873-2&rft.aulast=Buol&rft.aufirst=S.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DQM0kfIGYMjcC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DSoil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-IUSS2014-609"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IUSS2014_609-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">IUSS Working Group WRB (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/3rd/a-i3794e.pdf"><i>World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (3rd ed.). Rome: FAO. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-108370-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-5-108370-3"><bdi>978-92-5-108370-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Reference+Base+for+Soil+Resources+2014.+International+soil+classification+system+for+naming+soils+and+creating+legends+for+soil+maps&rft.place=Rome&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=FAO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-92-5-108370-3&rft.au=IUSS+Working+Group+WRB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3rd%2Fa-i3794e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link since December 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-SEU-610"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SEU_610-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140630010420/http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/esdb_archive/eusoils_docs/other/EUR23439.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/esdb_archive/eusoils_docs/other/EUR23439.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 30 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu%2Fesdb_archive%2Feusoils_docs%2Fother%2FEUR23439.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/> <i>Soils of the European Union</i> by the EU Institute for Environment and Sustainability. Accessed on 8 October 2013</span>
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<li id="cite_note-611"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-611">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.evsc.virginia.edu/~alm7d/soils/soilordr.html">The Soil Orders</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100112143347/http://www.evsc.virginia.edu/~alm7d/soils/soilordr.html">Archived</a> 12 January 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, retrieved 23 October 2012.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977411–32-612"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonahueMillerShickluna1977411–32_612-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDonahueMillerShickluna1977">Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977</a>, pp. 411–32.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-626"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-626">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Ballabio, Cristiano; Panagos, Panos; Lugato, Emanuele; Huang, Jen-How; Orgiazzi, Alberto; Jones, Arwyn; Fernández-Ugalde, Oihane; Borrelli, Pasquale; Montanarella, Luca (15 September 2018). "Copper distribution in European topsoils: An assessment based on LUCAS soil survey". <i>Science of the Total Environment</i>. <b>636</b>: 282–298. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ScTEn.636..282B">2018ScTEn.636..282B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2018.04.268">10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.268</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0048-9697">0048-9697</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29709848">29709848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+of+the+Total+Environment&rft.atitle=Copper+distribution+in+European+topsoils%3A+An+assessment+based+on+LUCAS+soil+survey&rft.volume=636&rft.pages=282-298&rft.date=2018-09-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2018.04.268&rft.issn=0048-9697&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29709848&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018ScTEn.636..282B&rft.aulast=Ballabio&rft.aufirst=Cristiano&rft.au=Panagos%2C+Panos&rft.au=Lugato%2C+Emanuele&rft.au=Huang%2C+Jen-How&rft.au=Orgiazzi%2C+Alberto&rft.au=Jones%2C+Arwyn&rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Ugalde%2C+Oihane&rft.au=Borrelli%2C+Pasquale&rft.au=Montanarella%2C+Luca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-627"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-627">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Jones, j. a. a. (1976). "Soil piping and stream channel initiation". <i>Water Resources Research</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 602–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971WRR.....7..602J">1971WRR.....7..602J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2FWR007i003p00602">10.1029/WR007i003p00602</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Resources+Research&rft.atitle=Soil+piping+and+stream+channel+initiation&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=602-10&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2FWR007i003p00602&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971WRR.....7..602J&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=j.+a.+a.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-628"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-628">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Dooley, Alan (June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080418185527/http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/cepa/pubs/jun06/story8.htm">"Sandboils 101: Corps has experience dealing with common flood danger"</a>. <i>Engineer Update</i>. US Army Corps of Engineers. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/cepa/pubs/jun06/story8.htm">the original</a> on 18 April 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Engineer+Update&rft.atitle=Sandboils+101%3A+Corps+has+experience+dealing+with+common+flood+danger&rft.date=2006-06&rft.aulast=Dooley&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hq.usace.army.mil%2Fcepa%2Fpubs%2Fjun06%2Fstory8.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-629"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-629">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">ILRI (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/irreff.pdf">"Effectiveness and Social/Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects: a Review"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In: Annual Report 1988 of the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI). Wageningen, The Netherlands. pp. 18–34. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090219070320/http://waterlog.info/pdf/irreff.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 19 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Effectiveness+and+Social%2FEnvironmental+Impacts+of+Irrigation+Projects%3A+a+Review&rft.place=Wageningen%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.series=In%3A+Annual+Report+1988+of+the+International+Institute+for+Land+Reclamation+and+Improvement+%28ILRI%29&rft.pages=18-34&rft.date=1989&rft.au=ILRI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.waterlog.info%2Fpdf%2Firreff.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-630"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-630">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><i>Drainage Manual: A Guide to Integrating Plant, Soil, and Water Relationships for Drainage of Irrigated Lands</i>. Interior Dept., Bureau of Reclamation. 1993. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-061623-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-061623-5"><bdi>978-0-16-061623-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drainage+Manual%3A+A+Guide+to+Integrating+Plant%2C+Soil%2C+and+Water+Relationships+for+Drainage+of+Irrigated+Lands&rft.pub=Interior+Dept.%2C+Bureau+of+Reclamation&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-16-061623-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Waterlog-631"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Waterlog_631-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterlog.info">"Free articles and software on drainage of waterlogged land and soil salinity control"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100816225219/http://www.waterlog.info/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Free+articles+and+software+on+drainage+of+waterlogged+land+and+soil+salinity+control&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.waterlog.info&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Water_Management_Institute2010-632"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Water_Management_Institute2010_632-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">International Water Management Institute (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Success_Stories/PDF/2010/Issue%202%20-%20Improving_soils_and_boosting_yields_in_Thailand.pdf">"Improving soils and boosting yields in Thailand"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Success Stories</i> (2). <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5337%2F2011.0031">10.5337/2011.0031</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120607030912/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Success_Stories/PDF/2010/Issue%202%20-%20Improving_soils_and_boosting_yields_in_Thailand.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 7 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Success+Stories&rft.atitle=Improving+soils+and+boosting+yields+in+Thailand&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5337%2F2011.0031&rft.au=International+Water+Management+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iwmi.cgiar.org%2FPublications%2FSuccess_Stories%2FPDF%2F2010%2FIssue%25202%2520-%2520Improving_soils_and_boosting_yields_in_Thailand.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-633"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-633">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130209012951/http://www.usaweekend.com/article/20110311/HOME04/103130305">"Provide for your garden's basic needs ... and the plants will take it from there"</a>. <i>USA Weekend</i>. 10 March 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usaweekend.com/article/20110311/HOME04/103130305">the original</a> on 9 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Weekend&rft.atitle=Provide+for+your+garden%27s+basic+needs+...+and+the+plants+will+take+it+from+there&rft.date=2011-03-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usaweekend.com%2Farticle%2F20110311%2FHOME04%2F103130305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></span>
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</ol></div></div>
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<dl><dt>Sources</dt></dl>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047268">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin reflist" style="">
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<ul><li><span id="CITEREFKellogg1957" class="citation">Kellogg. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n17/mode/1up">We Seek; We Learn</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
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<li><span id="CITEREFRichardsRichards1957" class="citation">Richards & Richards. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n68/mode/1up">Soil Moisture</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
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<li><span id="CITEREFColemanMehlich1957" class="citation">Coleman & Mehlich. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n92/mode/1up">The Chemistry of Soil pH</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
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<li><span id="CITEREFAllison1957" class="citation">Allison. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n105/mode/1up">Nitrogen and Soil Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
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||
<li><span id="CITEREFOlsenFried1957" class="citation">Olsen & Fried. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n115/mode/1up">Soil Phosphorus and Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFReitemeier1957" class="citation">Reitemeier. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n123/mode/1up">Soil Potassium and Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFJordanReisenauer1957" class="citation">Jordan & Reisenauer. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n129/mode/1up">Sulfur and Soil Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFHolmesBrown1957" class="citation">Holmes & Brown. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n133/mode/1up">Iron and Soil Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFSeatzJurinak1957" class="citation">Seatz & Jurinak. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n138/mode/1up">Zinc and Soil Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFRussel1957" class="citation">Russel. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n145/mode/1up">Boron and Soil Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFReuther1957" class="citation">Reuther. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n154/mode/1up">Copper and Soil Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFSherman1957" class="citation">Sherman. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n162/mode/1up">Manganese and Soil Fertility</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFStoutJohnson1957" class="citation">Stout & Johnson. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n167/mode/1up">Trace Elements</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFBroadbent1957" class="citation">Broadbent. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n179/mode/1up">Organic Matter</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFClark1957" class="citation">Clark. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n185/mode/1up">Living Organisms in the Soil</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
|
||
<li><span id="CITEREFFlemming1957" class="citation">Flemming. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//archive.org/stream/yoa1957#page/n367/mode/1up">Soil Management and Insect Control</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFStefferud1957">Stefferud (1957)</a>.</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268"/><div class="refbegin reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 33em; -webkit-column-width: 33em; column-width: 33em;">
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soil-net.com/">Soil-Net.com</a> A free schools-age educational site teaching about soil and its importance.</li>
|
||
<li>Adams, J.A. 1986. <i>Dirt</i>. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89096-301-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-89096-301-0">0-89096-301-0</a></li>
|
||
<li>Certini, G., Scalenghe, R. 2006. Soils: Basic concepts and future challenges. Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge.</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/David_R._Montgomery" title="David R. Montgomery">David R. Montgomery</a>, <i>Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25806-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25806-8">978-0-520-25806-8</a></li>
|
||
<li>Faulkner, Edward H. 1943. Plowman's Folly. New York, Grosset & Dunlap. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-933280-51-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-933280-51-3">0-933280-51-3</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080705133103/http://www.landis.org.uk/soilscapes">LandIS Free Soilscapes Viewer</a> Free interactive viewer for the Soils of England and Wales</li>
|
||
<li>Jenny, Hans. 1941. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130225050838/http://soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010159.Jenny.pdf">Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology</a></li>
|
||
<li>Logan, W.B. 1995. Dirt: The ecstatic skin of the earth. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57322-004-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-57322-004-3">1-57322-004-3</a></li>
|
||
<li>Mann, Charles C. September 2008. " Our good earth" <i>National Geographic Magazine</i></li>
|
||
<li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080624040143/http://www.mvm.usace.army.mil/Readiness/97flood/flood.htm">"97 Flood"</a>. USGS. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mvm.usace.army.mil/Readiness/97flood/flood.htm">the original</a> on 24 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=97+Flood&rft.pub=USGS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mvm.usace.army.mil%2FReadiness%2F97flood%2Fflood.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/> Photographs of sand boils.</li>
|
||
<li>Soil Survey Division Staff. 1999. <i>Soil survey manual</i>. Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 18.</li>
|
||
<li>Soil Survey Staff. 1975. <i>Soil Taxonomy: A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys.</i> USDA-SCS Agric. Handb. 436. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.</li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060828063956/http://forages.oregonstate.edu/is/ssis/main.cfm?PageID=3">Soils (Matching suitable forage species to soil type)</a>, Oregon State University</li>
|
||
<li><cite class="citation web">Gardiner, Duane T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180209052922/http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html">"Lecture 1 Chapter 1 Why Study Soils?"</a>. <i>ENV320: Soil Science Lecture Notes</i>. Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~doetqp-p/courses/env320/lec1/Lec1.html">the original</a> on 9 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ENV320%3A+Soil+Science+Lecture+Notes&rft.atitle=Lecture+1+Chapter+1+Why+Study+Soils%3F&rft.aulast=Gardiner&rft.aufirst=Duane+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjan.ucc.nau.edu%2F~doetqp-p%2Fcourses%2Fenv320%2Flec1%2FLec1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASoil" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r935243608"/></li>
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||
<li>Janick, Jules. 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050317030248/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_06/chapter_12l_R.html">Soil notes</a>, Purdue University</li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.landis.org.uk/">LandIS Soils Data for England and Wales</a> a pay source for GIS data on the soils of England and Wales and soils data source; they charge a handling fee to researchers.</li></ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
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<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<tbody><tr>
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||
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg/40px-Wikiversity-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="32" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg/60px-Wikiversity-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg/80px-Wikiversity-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="800" /></td>
|
||
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Soil_Formation" class="extiw" title="v:Soil Formation">Soil Formation</a></b></i></td></tr>
|
||
</tbody></table>
|
||
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
|
||
<tbody><tr>
|
||
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></td>
|
||
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology">Historical Geology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Soils_and_paleosols" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Soils and paleosols">Soils and paleosols</a></b></i></td></tr>
|
||
</tbody></table>
|
||
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
|
||
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/video/2019/jul/11/its-time-we-stopped-treating-soil-like-dirt-video">Short video explaining soil basics</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edaphic.com.au/soil-water-compendium/">The Soil Water Compendium (soil water content sensors explained)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/globalsoilpartnership/en/">Global Soil Partnership</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/en/">FAO Soils Portal</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/wrb/">World Reference Base for Soil Resources</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isric.org/">ISRIC – World Soil Information (ICSU World Data Centre for Soils)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isric.org/explore/library">World Soil Library and Maps</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wossac.com/">Wossac the world soil survey archive and catalogue</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csss.ca/">Canadian Society of Soil Science</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.soils.org/">Soil Science Society of America</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm">USDA-NRCS Web Soil Survey</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/">European Soil Portal</a> (wiki)</li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/sas/nsri">National Soil Resources Institute UK</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://passel.unl.edu/">Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/yoa1957">Copies of the reference 'Soil: The Yearbook of Agriculture 1957' in multiple formats</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div>
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||
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
|
||
</p>
|
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<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soil_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soil_science_topics" title="Template:Soil science topics"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soil_science_topics" title="Template talk:Soil science topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Soil_science_topics&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soil_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main fields</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biology" title="Soil biology">Soil biology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_microbiology" title="Soil microbiology">Soil microbiology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_zoology" title="Soil zoology">Soil zoology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_ecology" title="Soil ecology">Soil ecology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_physics" title="Soil physics">Soil physics</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Soil mechanics</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_soil_science" title="Environmental soil science">Environmental soil science</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_soil_science" title="Agricultural soil science">Agricultural soil science</a></li></ul>
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</div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_profile.png" class="image"><img alt="Soil profile.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_profile.png/110px-Soil_profile.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="134" class="thumbborder" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_profile.png/165px-Soil_profile.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soil_profile.png/220px-Soil_profile.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1833" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soil topics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">Pedosphere</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">Soil morphology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedodiversity" title="Pedodiversity">Pedodiversity</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedogenesis" title="Pedogenesis">Pedogenesis</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">Soil erosion</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil contamination</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Soil compaction</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction_(agriculture)" title="Soil compaction (agriculture)">Soil compaction (agriculture)</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">Soil salinity</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soil" title="Alkali soil">Alkali soil</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">Soil pH</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">Soil acidification</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">Soil health</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_life" title="Soil life">Soil life</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biodiversity" title="Soil biodiversity">Soil biodiversity</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_quality" title="Soil quality">Soil quality</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_value" title="Soil value">Soil value</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">Soil fertility</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">Soil resilience</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_color" title="Soil color">Soil color</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">Soil texture</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">Soil structure</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil" title="Pore space in soil">Pore space in soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">Pore water pressure</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_crust" title="Soil crust">Soil crust</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_horizon" title="Soil horizon">Soil horizon</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_biomantle" title="Soil biomantle">Soil biomantle</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">Soil carbon</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_gas" title="Soil gas">Soil gas</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_respiration" title="Soil respiration">Soil respiration</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">Soil organic matter</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil moisture">Soil moisture</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_water_(retention)" title="Soil water (retention)">Soil water (retention)</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil_type" title="Soil type">Soil type</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soil_classification" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soil_type" title="Template:Soil type"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soil_type" title="Template talk:Soil type"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Soil_type&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soil_classification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="USDA soil taxonomy">USDA soil taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfisol" title="Alfisol">Alfisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Andisol" title="Andisol">Andisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Aridisol" title="Aridisol">Aridisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Entisol" title="Entisol">Entisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gelisol" title="Gelisol">Gelisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Inceptisol" title="Inceptisol">Inceptisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mollisol" title="Mollisol">Mollisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Oxisol" title="Oxisol">Oxisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Spodosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultisol" title="Ultisol">Ultisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">Vertisols</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources" title="World Reference Base for Soil Resources">World Reference Base<br /> for Soil Resources</a> (1998–)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrisol" title="Acrisol">Acrisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Alisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Alisols">Alisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Andosol" title="Andosol">Andosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthrosol" title="Anthrosol">Anthrosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Psamment" title="Psamment">Arenosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Calcisol" title="Calcisol">Calcisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Cambisol" title="Cambisol">Cambisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Chernozem" title="Chernozem">Chernozem</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Cryosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryosols">Cryosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Durisol" title="Durisol">Durisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Ferralsols" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferralsols">Ferralsols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fluvisol" title="Fluvisol">Fluvisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gleysol" title="Gleysol">Gleysols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gypsisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Gypsisols">Gypsisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosol</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Kastanozems" class="mw-redirect" title="Kastanozems">Kastanozems</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Leptosol" title="Leptosol">Leptosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Lixisol" title="Lixisol">Lixisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Luvisol" title="Luvisol">Luvisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Nitisol" title="Nitisol">Nitisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Phaeozem" title="Phaeozem">Phaeozems</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Planosol" title="Planosol">Planosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Plinthosol" title="Plinthosol">Plinthosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Podzols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Regosol" title="Regosol">Regosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Retisol" title="Retisol">Retisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Solonchak" title="Solonchak">Solonchaks</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Solonetz" title="Solonetz">Solonetz</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Stagnosol" title="Stagnosol">Stagnosol</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Technosol" title="Technosol">Technosols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Umbrisol" title="Umbrisol">Umbrisols</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">Vertisols</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other systems</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/FAO_soil_classification" title="FAO soil classification">FAO soil classification</a> (1974–98)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System" title="Unified Soil Classification System">Unified Soil Classification System</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/AASHTO_Soil_Classification_System" title="AASHTO Soil Classification System">AASHTO Soil Classification System</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rentiel_p%C3%A9dologique" title="Référentiel pédologique">Référentiel pédologique</a> (French classification system)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_system_of_soil_classification" title="Canadian system of soil classification">Canadian system of soil classification</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Soil_Classification" title="Australian Soil Classification">Australian Soil Classification</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification" title="Polish Soil Classification">Polish Soil Classification</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/1938_USDA_soil_taxonomy" title="1938 USDA soil taxonomy">1938 USDA soil taxonomy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_soils" title="List of U.S. state soils">List of U.S. state soils</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types" title="List of vineyard soil types">List of vineyard soil types</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic soil types</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_crust" title="Soil crust">Soil crust</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Claypan" title="Claypan">Claypan</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hardpan" title="Hardpan">Hardpan</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gypcrust" title="Gypcrust">Gypcrust</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Caliche" title="Caliche">Caliche</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">Parent material</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">Pedosphere</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Laimosphere" title="Laimosphere">Laimosphere</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">Rhizosphere</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_soil" title="Bulk soil">Bulk soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soil" title="Alkali soil">Alkali soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Blue_goo" title="Blue goo">Blue goo</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Brickearth" title="Brickearth">Brickearth</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Brown_earth" title="Brown earth">Brown earth</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_grassland" title="Calcareous grassland">Calcareous grassland</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Dark_earth" title="Dark earth">Dark earth</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Dry_quicksand" title="Dry quicksand">Dry quicksand</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Eluvium" title="Eluvium">Eluvium</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Expansive_clay" title="Expansive clay">Expansive clay</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fuller%27s_earth" title="Fuller's earth">Fuller's earth</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic_soil" title="Hydrophobic soil">Hydrophobic soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_soil" title="Lunar soil">Lunar soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" title="Martian soil">Martian soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mud" title="Mud">Mud</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Muskeg" title="Muskeg">Muskeg</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Paleosol" title="Paleosol">Paleosol</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedalfer" title="Pedalfer">Pedalfer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pedocal" title="Pedocal">Pedocal</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Podzol" title="Podzol">Podzol</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Prime_farmland" title="Prime farmland">Prime farmland</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Serpentine_soil" title="Serpentine soil">Serpentine soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Spodic_soil" title="Spodic soil">Spodic soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Subaqueous_soil" title="Subaqueous soil">Subaqueous soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Terra_rossa_(soil)" title="Terra rossa (soil)">Terra rossa (soil)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_peat" title="Tropical peat">Tropical peat</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Yedoma" title="Yedoma">Yedoma</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Types_of_soil" title="Category:Types of soil">Types of soil</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_management" title="Soil management">Soil management</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline value</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_survey" title="Soil survey">Soil survey</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Soil test</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_governance" title="Soil governance">Soil governance</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_value" title="Soil value">Soil value</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">Soil salinity control</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_policy_(Victoria,_Australia)" title="Soil policy (Victoria, Australia)">Soil policy (Victoria, Australia)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Liming_(soil)" title="Liming (soil)">Liming (soil)</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_materials" title="Earth materials">Earth materials</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrology" title="Agrology">Agrology</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies, Initiatives</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Society_of_Soil_Science_Incorporated" title="Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated">Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Society_of_Soil_Science" title="Canadian Society of Soil Science">Canadian Society of Soil Science</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Central_Soil_Salinity_Research_Institute" title="Central Soil Salinity Research Institute">Central Soil Salinity Research Institute</a> (India)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/German_Soil_Science_Society" title="German Soil Science Society">German Soil Science Society</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Soil_Science" title="Indian Institute of Soil Science">Indian Institute of Soil Science</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Soil_Sciences" title="International Union of Soil Sciences">International Union of Soil Sciences</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Year_of_Soil" title="International Year of Soil">International Year of Soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Society_of_Consulting_Soil_Scientists" title="National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists">National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists</a> (USA)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/OPAL_Soil_Centre" title="OPAL Soil Centre">OPAL Soil Centre</a> (UK)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_Poland" title="Soil Science Society of Poland">Soil Science Society of Poland</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_and_Water_Conservation_Society" title="Soil and Water Conservation Society">Soil and Water Conservation Society</a> (USA)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America" title="Soil Science Society of America">Soil Science Society of America</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/World_Congress_of_Soil_Science" title="World Congress of Soil Science">World Congress of Soil Science</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific journals</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acta_Agriculturae_Scandinavica_B" title="Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B">Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Soil_and_Water_Conservation" title="Journal of Soil and Water Conservation">Journal of Soil and Water Conservation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Plant_and_Soil" title="Plant and Soil">Plant and Soil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pochvovedenie" title="Pochvovedenie">Pochvovedenie</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Research" title="Soil Research">Soil Research</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Science_Society_of_America_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil Science Society of America Journal">Soil Science Society of America Journal</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Land conversion">Land conversion</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Land management</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration (hydrology)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">Crust (geology)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Impervious_surface" title="Impervious surface">Impervious surface</a>/<a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>
|
||
<ul><li><img alt="Project page" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Symbol_information_vote.svg/16px-Symbol_information_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Project page" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Symbol_information_vote.svg/23px-Symbol_information_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Symbol_information_vote.svg/31px-Symbol_information_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Soil" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil">Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil</a></li>
|
||
<li> <img alt="Category" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Soil" title="Category:Soil">Category soil</a></li>
|
||
<li>  <a href="/wiki/Category:Soil_science" title="Category:Soil science">Category soil science</a></li>
|
||
<li><img alt="List-Class article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" title="List-Class article" width="16" height="16" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_soil-related_articles" title="Index of soil-related articles">Index of soil-related articles</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_soil_scientists" title="List of soil scientists">List of soil scientists</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geotechnical_engineering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geotechnical_engineering" title="Template:Geotechnical engineering"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geotechnical_engineering" title="Template talk:Geotechnical engineering"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Geotechnical_engineering&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geotechnical_engineering" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Offshore_geotechnical_engineering"><a href="/wiki/Offshore_geotechnical_engineering" title="Offshore geotechnical engineering">Offshore geotechnical engineering</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_investigation" title="Geotechnical investigation">Investigation</a> and instrumentation</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Field (<i>in situ</i>)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 33em; -webkit-column-width: 33em; column-width: 33em;">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Core_sample.svg" class="image"><img alt="Core sample.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/20px-Core_sample.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/30px-Core_sample.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Core_sample.svg/40px-Core_sample.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Core_drill" title="Core drill">Core drill</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Cone_penetration_test.svg" class="image"><img alt="Cone penetration test.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/20px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/30px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Cone_penetration_test.svg/40px-Cone_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="214" data-file-height="188" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Cone_penetration_test" title="Cone penetration test">Cone penetration test</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Geo-electrical_sounding.svg" class="image"><img alt="Geo-electrical sounding.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/20px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="11" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/30px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Geo-electrical_sounding.svg/40px-Geo-electrical_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="187" /></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Geo-electrical_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geo-electrical sounding (page does not exist)">Geo-electrical sounding</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:In_situ_permeameter_test.svg" class="image"><img alt="In situ permeameter test.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/20px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/30px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/In_situ_permeameter_test.svg/40px-In_situ_permeameter_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="215" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(Earth_sciences)" title="Permeability (Earth sciences)">Permeability test</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Load_test.svg" class="image"><img alt="Load test.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/20px-Load_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/30px-Load_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Load_test.svg/40px-Load_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Load_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Load test">Load test</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Static_load_testing" title="Static load testing">Static</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_load_testing" title="Dynamic load testing">Dynamic</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Statnamic_load_test" title="Statnamic load test">Statnamic</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Pore_pressure_measurement.svg" class="image"><img alt="Pore pressure measurement.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/20px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/30px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pore_pressure_measurement.svg/40px-Pore_pressure_measurement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="215" /></a> Pore pressure measurement
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piezometer" title="Piezometer">Piezometer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Well#Classification" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Ram_sounding.svg" class="image"><img alt="Ram sounding.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/20px-Ram_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/30px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ram_sounding.svg/40px-Ram_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="214" data-file-height="188" /></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ram_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ram sounding (page does not exist)">Ram sounding</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_control_drilling.svg" class="image"><img alt="Rock control drilling.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/17px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/25px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rock_control_drilling.svg/34px-Rock_control_drilling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="212" data-file-height="252" /></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rock_control_drilling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rock control drilling (page does not exist)">Rock control drilling</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg" class="image"><img alt="Rotary pressure sounding.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/15px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/22px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_pressure_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="214" data-file-height="286" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Rotary-pressure_sounding" title="Rotary-pressure sounding">Rotary-pressure sounding</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Rotary_weight_sounding.svg" class="image"><img alt="Rotary weight sounding.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/20px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/30px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rotary_weight_sounding.svg/40px-Rotary_weight_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="213" data-file-height="213" /></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotary_weight_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotary weight sounding (page does not exist)">Rotary weight sounding</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_series.svg" class="image"><img alt="Sample series.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/20px-Sample_series.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/30px-Sample_series.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sample_series.svg/40px-Sample_series.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Soil_test#Soil_testing" title="Soil test">Sample series</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Screw_plate_test.svg" class="image"><img alt="Screw plate test.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/20px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/30px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Screw_plate_test.svg/40px-Screw_plate_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="251" /></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Screw_plate_test&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Screw plate test (page does not exist)">Screw plate test</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_monitoring" title="Deformation monitoring">Deformation monitoring</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Inclinometer.svg" class="image"><img alt="Inclinometer.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/20px-Inclinometer.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/30px-Inclinometer.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Inclinometer.svg/40px-Inclinometer.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">Inclinometer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/File:Settlement_recordings.svg" class="image"><img alt="Settlement recordings.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/20px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/30px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Settlement_recordings.svg/40px-Settlement_recordings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Soil_consolidation" title="Soil consolidation">Settlement recordings</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Shear_vane_test.svg" class="image"><img alt="Shear vane test.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/20px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/30px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shear_vane_test.svg/40px-Shear_vane_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="214" data-file-height="215" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Shear_vane_test" title="Shear vane test">Shear vane test</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_sounding.svg" class="image"><img alt="Simple sounding.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/20px-Simple_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/30px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Simple_sounding.svg/40px-Simple_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="215" /></a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simple_sounding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simple sounding (page does not exist)">Simple sounding</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_penetration_test.svg" class="image"><img alt="Standard penetration test.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/20px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/30px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Standard_penetration_test.svg/40px-Standard_penetration_test.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Standard_penetration_test" title="Standard penetration test">Standard penetration test</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Total_sounding.svg" class="image"><img alt="Total sounding.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/20px-Total_sounding.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/30px-Total_sounding.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Total_sounding.svg/40px-Total_sounding.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Total_sounding" title="Total sounding">Total sounding</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Trial_pit.svg" class="image"><img alt="Trial pit.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/20px-Trial_pit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/30px-Trial_pit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Trial_pit.svg/40px-Trial_pit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="214" data-file-height="214" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Trial_pit" title="Trial pit">Trial pit</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_rock.svg" class="image"><img alt="Visible rock.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/20px-Visible_rock.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="17" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/30px-Visible_rock.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Visible_rock.svg/40px-Visible_rock.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="181" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Visible bedrock</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_densometer" title="Nuclear densometer">Nuclear densometer test</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Exploration geophysics</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crosshole_sonic_logging" title="Crosshole sonic logging">Crosshole sonic logging</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pile_integrity_test" title="Pile integrity test">Pile integrity test</a></li></ul>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wave_equation_analysis" title="Wave equation analysis">Wave equation analysis</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_test" title="Soil test">Laboratory testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">Soil classification</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Atterberg_limits" title="Atterberg limits">Atterberg limits</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/California_bearing_ratio" title="California bearing ratio">California bearing ratio</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Direct_shear_test" title="Direct shear test">Direct shear test</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">Hydrometer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Proctor_compaction_test" title="Proctor compaction test">Proctor compaction test</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/R-value_(soils)" title="R-value (soils)">R-value</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Sieve_analysis" title="Sieve analysis">Sieve analysis</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Triaxial_shear_test" title="Triaxial shear test">Triaxial shear test</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Oedometer_test" title="Oedometer test">Oedometer test</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity#Experimental_approach" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity tests</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_content#Measurement" title="Water content">Water content tests</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">Clay</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">Silt</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">Loam</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">Water content</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Void_ratio" title="Void ratio">Void ratio</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">Bulk density</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Thixotropy" title="Thixotropy">Thixotropy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Reynolds%27_dilatancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds' dilatancy">Reynolds' dilatancy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">Angle of repose</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Friction#Angle_of_friction" title="Friction">Friction angle</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(geology)" title="Cohesion (geology)">Cohesion</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">Porosity</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (earth sciences)">Permeability</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Specific_storage" title="Specific storage">Specific storage</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Shear_strength_(soil)" title="Shear strength (soil)">Shear strength</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Sensitivity</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures (<a href="/wiki/Soil-structure_interaction" title="Soil-structure interaction">Interaction</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">Topography</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">Terrain</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">Topsoil</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">Water table</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">Bedrock</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Subgrade" title="Subgrade">Subgrade</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Subsoil" title="Subsoil">Subsoil</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(engineering)" title="Earthworks (engineering)">Earthworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li>Shoring structures
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retaining_wall" title="Retaining wall">Retaining walls</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Ground_freezing" title="Ground freezing">Ground freezing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_stabilized_earth" title="Mechanically stabilized earth">Mechanically stabilized earth</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_grouting" title="Pressure grouting">Pressure grouting</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_wall" title="Slurry wall">Slurry wall</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_nailing" title="Soil nailing">Soil nailing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Tieback_(geotechnical)" title="Tieback (geotechnical)">Tieback</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Digging" title="Digging">Excavation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Trench" title="Trench">Trench</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Embankment_(earthworks)" title="Embankment (earthworks)">Embankment</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Cut_(earthworks)" title="Cut (earthworks)">Cut</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">Causeway</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel#Cut-and-cover" title="Tunnel">Cut-and-cover</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Cut_and_fill" title="Cut and fill">Cut and fill</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fill_dirt" title="Fill dirt">Fill dirt</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Grading_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grading (engineering)">Grading</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Track_bed" title="Track bed">Track bed</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_structure" title="Earth structure">Earth structure</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Expanded_clay_aggregate" title="Expanded clay aggregate">Expanded clay aggregate</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">Crushed stone</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">Geosynthetics</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geotextile" title="Geotextile">Geotextile</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geomembrane" title="Geomembrane">Geomembrane</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geosynthetic_clay_liner" title="Geosynthetic clay liner">Geosynthetic clay liner</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_confinement" title="Cellular confinement">Cellular confinement</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation" title="Shallow foundation">Shallow</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Deep_foundation" title="Deep foundation">Deep</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soil_mechanics" title="Soil mechanics">Mechanics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Forces</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_stress" title="Effective stress">Effective stress</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Pore_water_pressure" title="Pore water pressure">Pore water pressure</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_earth_pressure" title="Lateral earth pressure">Lateral earth pressure</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Overburden_pressure" title="Overburden pressure">Overburden pressure</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Preconsolidation_pressure" title="Preconsolidation pressure">Preconsolidation pressure</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.0em;font-weight: normal;">Phenomena/problems</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heaving</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolidation (soil)">Consolidation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">Compaction</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Response_spectrum" title="Response spectrum">Response spectrum</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/S-wave" title="S-wave">Shear wave</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a> analysis
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slope_stability_analysis" title="Slope stability analysis">Stability analysis</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_mitigation" title="Landslide mitigation">Mitigation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Landslide_classification" title="Landslide classification">Classification</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Sliding_criterion_(geotechnical_engineering)" title="Sliding criterion (geotechnical engineering)">Sliding criterion</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Road#Slab_stabilization" title="Road">Slab stabilisation</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Bearing_capacity" title="Bearing capacity">Bearing capacity</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Numerical analysis software</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/SEEP2D" title="SEEP2D">SEEP2D</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/STABL" title="STABL">STABL</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/SVFlux" title="SVFlux">SVFlux</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/SVSlope" title="SVSlope">SVSlope</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/UTEXAS" title="UTEXAS">UTEXAS</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Plaxis" title="Plaxis">Plaxis</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geoprofessions" title="Geoprofessions">Related fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake engineering</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Earth_materials" title="Earth materials">Earth materials</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrology" title="Agrology">Agrology</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Natural_resources&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards <span style="font-size:90%;">(USA)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_pollution_in_developing_nations" title="Indoor air pollution in developing nations">developing nations</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act <span style="font-size:90%;">(USA)</span></a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg" class="image" title="Carson Falls on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo"><img alt="Carson Falls on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg/100px-Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg/150px-Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg/200px-Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3456" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">wave</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">Arable</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Soil</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">Food</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">Gene bank</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">Herbalist plants</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">Non-timber forest products</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li>
|
||
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|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a>
|
||
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></i></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li>
|
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<li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li>
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh2001008871">sh2001008871</a></span></span></li>
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<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561744">00561744</a></span></span></li></ul>
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<div class="printfooter">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soil&oldid=935554462">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soil&oldid=935554462</a>"</div>
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<li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soils" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Soil" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li> </ul>
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<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grond" title="Grond – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="تربة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suelo" title="Suelo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimintu" title="Pimintu – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF" title="মাটি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suelu" title="Suelu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laq%27a" title="Laq'a – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpaq" title="Torpaq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82" title="توپراق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF" title="মাটি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%B4%CD%98" title="Thô͘ – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%A1" title="Тупраҡ – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Глеба – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Глеба – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80" title="माटी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Почва – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlo" title="Tlo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B2l" title="Sòl – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%AFda" title="Půda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaga" title="Dhaga – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pridd" title="Pridd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jord" title="Jord – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boden_(Bodenkunde)" title="Boden (Bodenkunde) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muld" title="Muld – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%B4%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Έδαφος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Мода – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suelo" title="Suelo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundo" title="Grundo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurzoru" title="Lurzoru – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="خاک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_(p%C3%A9dologie)" title="Sol (pédologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierdboaiem" title="Ierdboaiem – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithir" title="Ithir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%99ir" title="Ùir – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solo" title="Solo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%BA" title="Thú – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9D%99" title="흙 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%98asa_(shinfidar_%C6%99asa)" title="Ƙasa (shinfidar ƙasa) – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%B2" title="Հող – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE" title="मृदा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlo" title="Tlo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanah" title="Tanah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umhlaba" title="Umhlaba – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jar%C3%B0vegur" title="Jarðvegur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suolo" title="Suolo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%A2" title="קרקע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemah" title="Lemah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%81" title="ಮಣ್ಣು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="ნიადაგი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%9B" title="Топырақ – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udongo" title="Udongo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B2l" title="Sòl – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax" title="Ax – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Топурак – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellus_(terra)" title="Tellus (terra) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augsne" title="Augsne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirvo%C5%BEemis" title="Dirvožemis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerdbaom" title="Aerdbaom – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talaj" title="Talaj – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Почва – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D" title="മണ്ണ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="माती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanah" title="Tanah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B9" title="Tù – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%81" title="Хөрс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlalpantli" title="Tlalpantli – Nāhuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qele" title="Qele – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodem" title="Bodem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B" title="माटो – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%8C" title="土壌 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Латта – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jord" title="Jord – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jord" title="Jord – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuproq" title="Tuproq – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%80" title="ਮਿੱਟੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%B9%DB%8C" title="مٹی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="خاوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleba" title="Gleba – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solo" title="Solo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_(strat_al_P%C4%83m%C3%A2ntului)" title="Sol (strat al Pământului) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terren" title="Terren – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allpa" title="Allpa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Почва – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Буор – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syle" title="Syle – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedosfera" title="Pedosfera – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirrinu" title="Tirrinu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil" title="Soil – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%BD%D9%8A" title="مٽي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B4da" title="Pôda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prst_(pedologija)" title="Prst (pedologija) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%86%DA%B5" title="خۆڵ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Тло – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlo" title="Tlo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taneuh" title="Taneuh – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maalaji" title="Maalaji – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jord" title="Jord – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupa" title="Lupa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D" title="மண் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akal" title="Akal – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Туфрак – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча/tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B2" title="నేల – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="ดิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Хок – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelekele" title="Kelekele – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lea faka-Tonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toprak" title="Toprak – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Ґрунт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%B9%DB%8C" title="مٹی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahuz" title="Mahuz – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A5t" title="Đất – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9F" title="באדן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A5%E5%9C%9F" title="泥土 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%97rva" title="Dėrva – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E5%A3%A4" title="土壤 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul>
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